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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
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https://archive.org/details/outlinehistoryofOOgowe 


THE  BOY  CONFUCIUS 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY 


BY 


HERBERT  H.  GOWEN,  D.D.,  F.R.G.S. 


Professor  of  Oriental  History  at  the  University 
of  Washington 


New  and  Revised  Edition 


BOSTON 

SHERMAN,  FRENCH  & COMPANY 

1917 


Copyright,  1913,  1916 
Sherman,  French  6s  Company 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 


In  view  of  the  kindly  reception  the  first  edition 
of  this  work  has  had  at  the  hands  of  the  public,  it  is 
hoped  that  this  new  and  revised  edition  may  establish 
itself  further  in  favor.  It  is  still  quite  necessary  to 
emphasize  the  fact  that  the  book  is  neither  a complete 
history  of  China  nor  a selection  of  episodes  chosen 
according  to  the  writer’s  own  taste.  The  bulk  of 
the  book  might  all  too  easily  have  been  increased, 
but,  in  that  event,  the  idea  of  writing  a brief,  fairly- 
proportioned  sketch  would  have  remained  unfulfilled. 
One  or  two  critics  have  complained  of  the  prominence 
of  the  military  episodes.  The  only  excuse  that  can 
be  made  is  that  Chinese  history  is  (in  spite  of  the 
generally  unmilitary  character  of  the  people)  unfor- 
tunately very  full  of  campaigns  which  cannot  be  left 
altogether  unchronicled  if  a true  picture  is  to  be 
presented.  Yet  the  Kultwrgeschiclite  has  been  by  no 
means  neglected.  The  philosophers  and  literati  un- 
doubtedly contributed  much  to  Chinese  history  and 
their  place  in  the  narrative  has  been  assigned  wher- 
ever possible.  Nevertheless,  the  framework  of  the 
story  must  necessarily  be  political  and  the  effect  of 
such  a work  as  the  present  would  have  been  inverte- 
brate had  not  the  dynastic  changes  been  carefully 
marked.  The  author  believes  that  those  who  will 
take  the  trouble  to  make  this  general  outline  their 
own  will  find  pointed  out  in  the  bibliography  ap- 


11 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 


pended  ample  material  for  filling  up  the  gaps  which 
have  been  deliberately  left. 

In  this  new  edition  every  page  has  been  carefully 
revised.  A few  errors  have  been  corrected,  the  spell- 
ing of  the  names  systematized  and  the  narrative  has 
been,  as  far  as  possible,  brought  down  to  date.  For 
this  latter  part  of  the  task  the  author  acknowledges 
his  indebtedness  to  his  son,  Mr.  Vincent  H.  Gowen,  of 
S.  Paul’s  High  School,  Anking. 


PREFACE 


The  writer  claims  for  this  little  book  nothing 
more  than  its  title  implies.  It  is,  in  the  strictest 
sense  of  the  word,  an  outline  sketch  of  the  suc- 
cessive periods  of  Chinese  history  which,  it  is  hoped, 
the  student  will  fill  in  from  a wider  reading.  Some 
of  this  is  suggested  in  an  Appendix.  The  excuse  for 
presenting  it  to  a public  already  deluged  with  works 
on  China  consists  in  two  facts.  The  first  is  the  im- 
portance of  the  subject.  If  in  Juvenal’s  time  there 
were  those  who  were  interested  in  knowing 

“ Quid  Seres,  quid  Thraces  agant,” 

much  more  is  it  the  case  to-day.  “ China’s  New 
Day  ” makes  it  more  than  ever  necessary  to  know 
something  of  her  wronderful  past,  since  it  is  out  of 
that  past  that  the  present  has,  in  the  main,  sprung. 

Secondly,  the  early  history  of  China  has  been 
seriously  neglected  by  English  and  American  waiters. 
Chinese  history  has  almost  invariably  been  treated 
from  the  point  of  view  of  Foreign  Relations,  with 
the  result  that  a fewr  pages  have  sufficed  for  the  four 
millenniums  prior  to  the  Manchu  occupation,  while 
hundreds  of  pages  have  been  used  to  discuss  (from 
a foreign  point  of  view)  the  events  of  the  past  fewr 
decades.  The  consequence  is  that,  to  the  best  of  the 

waiter’s  knowledge,  there  is  no  wrork  in  English  giv- 

iii 


IV 


PREFACE 


ing  the  student  such  a sketch  of  pre-Manchu  times 
as  will  enable  him  to  grasp  the  singular  continuity 
of  Chinese  political  and  social  life.  It  is  too  much 
for  the  writer  to  suppose  that  he  has  completely 
filled  the  gap,  but  it  is  hoped  that  he  has  made  some 
such  contribution  as  will  bring  home  to  many  in  our 
schools  and  colleges  some  part  of  the  interest  which 
lies  behind  the  veil.  It  is  impossible  here  to  mention 
all  the  sources  to  which  this  book  is  indebted.  Most 
of  them  will  appear  from  the  notes  and  from  the 
attached  bibliography.  Special  acknowledgment, 
however,  should  be  made  to  the  writings  of  Professor 
Hirth  of  Columbia,  G.  Pauthier,  Abel  Remusat, 
Chavannes,  Legge,  Williams,  Giles,  Mayers,  Pott, 
Douglas  and  D.  C.  Boulger. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  MANCHU 
CONQUEST,  A.  D.  1644 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I INTRODUCTORY  1 

II  PRELIMINARIES 8 

III  “IN  THE  BEGINNING” 17 

IV  THE  FIVE  RULERS 24 

V THE  HSIA  DYNASTY 32 

VI  THE  SHANG  DYNASTY 36 

VII  THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 42 

VIII  THE  CHOU  DYNASTY  (concluded)  ...  55 

IX  THE  CH‘IN  DYNASTY 73 

X THE  HAN  DYNASTY 83 

XI  FOUR  CENTURIES  OF  ANARCHY  ...  99 

XII  THE  T‘ANG  DYNASTY 109 

XIII  THE  FIVE  LITTLE  DYNASTIES  . . . .125 

XIV  THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 129 

XV  THE  YftAN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY  . . 143 

XVI  THE  MING  DYNASTY 155 

PART  II 

FROM  THE  MANCHU  CONQUEST  TO  THE  PRESENT 

DAY 

XVII  INTRODUCTORY 173 

XVIII  THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 182 

XIX  THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 198 

XX  THE  REIGN  OF  YUNG  CHENG  ....  214 

XXI  THE  REIGN  OF  CH‘IEN  LUNG  ....  223 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXII  THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CH‘ING  . . . .240 

XXIII  THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG  . . . .255 

XXIV  THE  T‘AIPING  REBELLION 273 

XXV  THE  REIGN  OF  HSIEN  Fi^NG  . . . .283 

XXVI  THE  REIGN  OF  T‘UNG  CHIH  . . . .291 

XXVII  THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU  . . . . 305 

XXVIII  THE  EMPRESS  DOWAGER’S  THIRD  RE- 


GENCY   323 

XXIX  THE  REVOLUTION 337 

XXX  THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 347 

XXXI  THE  PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  360 

APPENDIX  A 377 

APPENDIX  B 386 

INDEX  391 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  Boy  Confucius Frontis. 


FACING 

PAGE 

Fu  Hsi 26 

Lao  Tzu 58 

Kublai  Khan  Going  to  Battle  . . . .148 

Tien  Ming 174 


The  Eleuths  Pay  Homage  to  Ch‘ien  lung  . 226 

Peking  (from  an  Old  Print) 292 

Yuan  Shih-kai 342 


PART  I 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO 
THE  MANCHU  CONQUEST 
A.  D.  1644 


CHAPTER  I 


INTRODUCTORY 

A certain  soldier,  says  a tale  of  the  T4ang 
dynasty,  was  in  the  habit  of  taking  his  potations 
beneath  the  branches  of  a spreading  tree.  One  day 
he  fell  asleep  and  dreamed  that  fairies  came  to  him 
and  carried  him  away  to  the  country  of  their  king. 
Here  he  was  royally  received,  taken  from  one  scene 
of  regal  splendor  to  another,  and  at  length  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  governor  of  a country  where  he 
lived  for  many  years.  However,  when  the  dreamer 
roused  himself  from  sleep  he  found  all  these  experi- 
ences had  taken  but  a moment  of  time.  In  making 
the  effort  to  compress  within  a few  pages  the  com- 
plex record  of  the  more  than  four  millenniums  of 
Chinese  history,  it  is  impossible  not  to  envy  the 
above-mentioned  soldier  his  magic  potion.  How 
otherwise  can  we,  within  our  inevitable  limitations, 
grasp  the  significance  of  the  age-long  story? 

Is  it  not  strange,  in  these  days  when  the  lines  of 
demarcation  between  continents  and  peoples  are 
being  abolished  as  never  since  the  days  when  Alex- 
ander the  Great  made  Europe  and  Asia  one,  that  so 
far  as  the  science  of  history  goes,  the  average 
student  limits  his  knowledge  of  the  past  to  the 
classical  story  of  Greece  and  Rome  and  to  the  com- 
paratively recent  annals  of  Europe  and  America? 

1 


2 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Is  it  not  strange  that  that  long  unbroken  high- 
way of  human  life  which  stretches  right  back  without 
a chasm  from  our  own  time  to  the  ages  of  fable  and 
myth,  the  continuous  tale  to  which  the  most  ancient 
annals  of  Greece  and  Rome  seem  modern  by  the  con- 
trast, the  history  which  has  its  surprises  such  as 
bear  witness  to  the  vitality  of  youth  in  the  present, 
should  be  to  so  large  an  extent  an  untrodden  road 
by  the  ordinary  student  in  our  schools  and  uni- 
versities ? 

The  excuse  of  inaccessibility  and  remoteness  will 
no  longer  hold  for  those  who  have  treated  a great 
volume  of  the  deepest  human  interest  as  though  it 
wTere  a book  sealed  with  seven  seals. 

Indeed,  we  are  disposed  to  ask  whether  such  an 
excuse  could  ever  have  applied,  except  during  the 
narrow  century  or  tw7o  when  the  Ottoman  conquests 
interposed  an  unnatural  barrier  across  the  road  to 
Cathay,  which  proved  more  difficult  to  surmount 
than  the  desert  and  the  seas.  The  nations  of  olden 
times  were  nowise  disposed  to  despise  knowledge  of 
the  people  and  arts  of  Serica.  Victorious  Greek  art 
followed  easily  along  the  open  road  made  by  the 
military  genius  of  Alexander  right  to  the  very 
bounds  of  the  Eastern  waste.  The  banners  of  the 
Caesars  encountered  the  banners  of  the  great  Han 
generals  on  the  very  shores  of  the  Caspian,  marking 
one  frontier  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Yellow 
Sea.  Traders  went  with  comparative  ease,  bearing 
silk  and  iron,  to  the  Roman  markets,  along  the  great 
routes  which  have  been  re-opened  with  difficulty  by 
some  of  our  modern  travelers.  Every  religion 
known  to  Western  Asia,  Buddhist,  Magian,  Chris- 


INTRODUCTORY 


3 


tian,  Manichean,  Muhamadan,  found  in  the  old 
Chinese  capitals  a refuge  and  frequently  a welcome. 
Not  even  the  great  Mongol  conquests,  which  anni- 
hilated whole  nations  and  sowed  the  sites  of  populous 
cities  with  salt,  blocked  the  routes.  Franciscans 
like  Carpini  and  de  Rubruk  made  their  way  to  the 
camps  of  the  great  Khan,  and  the  Polos  were  not 
alone  as  travelers  to  dare  the  perils  of  the  way  to 
Cambaluc.  One  would  think  that  the  fascinating 
record  of  the  great  Venetian  would  by  itself  have 
sufficed  to  drive  the  enchanted  reader  from  page  to 
page  of  the  wonderful  story  in  which  Marco  played 
a part  for  some  twenty-four  years. 

Even  when  the  Turks  succeeded  in  blocking  for 
Europe  the  three  land  routes  along  which  mission- 
aries, merchants  and  soldiers  had  marched  from  time 
immemorial,  the  glamour  of  Cathay  remained.  The 
new  era  of  geographical  research  which  was  at  this 
time  inaugurated  had  the  re-discovery  of  China  as 
its  objective  point.  To  this  end  toiled  and  medi- 
tated that  noble  ascetic  of  science,  Prince  Henry  of 
Portugal,  from  his  lonely  Pharos  sending  out  ex- 
pedition after  expedition  to  find  the  limits  of  the 
African  coast.  To  this  end  Diaz  rounded  the  Cape 
of  Storms,  Vasco  da  Gama  made  a theme  for  the 
Lusiads,  and  Magellan  sailed  round  the  Horn  into 
the  Pacific.  To  this  end  Columbus  started  on  the 
journey  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  America,  and 
all  the  great  English  seamen  strove  for  the  victory, 
east  or  west,  north-east  or  north-west,  over  the 
obstacles  which  lay  between  themselves  and  the 
golden  lands  of  the  far  eastern  seas. 

Surely  now  that  the  goal  has  again  been  reached 


4 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


and  the  way  thither  made  familiar  to  the  feet  of 
man,  after  all  the  labors  of  seamen  and  merchants, 
after  all  the  martyrdoms  of  missionaries  and  ex- 
plorers, after  all  the  battles  of  diplomacy  and  of 
arms,  we  must  not  be  content  to  know  only  the  China 
of  the  treaty  ports,  or  to  know  it  only  as  a land 
upon  which  some  stronger  nation  enforces  an  occa- 
sional claim  at  the  cannon’s  mouth,  or  as  one  from 
the  exploitation  of  which  the  commerce  of  Europe 
and  America  multiplies  its  gain. 

What  of  China  for  her  own  sake? 

What  of  her  Art ? — that  wonderful  art  unveiled 
so  recently  in  the  Cave  of  the  Thousand  Buddhas, 
the  art  that  assimilated  so  much  of  what  was  best 
in  Greece,  and  India,  and  Persia,  and  became  the 
teacher  of  Korea  and  Japan. 

What  of  her  Literature?  — the  Poetry,  the 
Drama,  the  Novels,  the  Philosophy,  above  all  the 
History,  vast  beyond  human  power  to  compute  in 
quantity,  and  not  without  its  quality,  though  written 
down  in  a language  which  to  the  Western  world 
seems  clumsv  and  uncouth. 

What  of  her  Government?  — the  wonderful  in- 
strument, so  stable  and  enduring  beyond  the  power 
of  revolutions  to  shock  or  shake,  yet  changing  with 
the  changing  times,  running  the  whole  gamut  of  ex- 
periment, democratic  at  heart  and  most  daring  in 
its  trust  of  the  people,  yet  ever  imperialistic  in 
foreign  polic}-,  a government  which,  as  an  authority 
has  said,  seems  to  have  as  its  fundamental  principle 
of  administration,  “ a sort  of  mutual  toleration  be- 
tween nominal  rulers  and  ruled,  supported  chiefly 
by  that  all-pervading  factor,  vis  inertice a Govern- 


INTRODUCTORY 


5 


ment  finally,  which  is  now  manifesting  itself  in  the 
New  Republic  which  faces  the  stress  and  storm  of 
international  life. 

Lastly,  but  by  no  means  least,  what  of  its  People? 
What  of  that  marvelous  people  which  had  already 
fashioned  a polity  through  the  experience  of  genera- 
tions, if  we  may  trust  the  ancient  traditions,  when 
Hammurabi  was  making  laws  for  the  infant  state  of 
Babylon ; which  was  producing  its  greatest  literature 
when  Romulus  and  Remus  were  founding  the  city 
of  Rome;  which  was  sending  forth  learned  monks  to 
collect  the  literary  treasures  of  India  when  Piets 
and  Britons  were  fighting  for  mastery  and  Saxon 
pirates  were  harrying  the  coasts  which  Rome  had 
left  unguarded;  which  was  receiving  Christian  mis- 
sionaries from  Persia  and  Syria  at  the  very  time 
when  Ethelbert  and  his  fellow  princes  were  listening 
to  the  news  brought  by  Augustine  and  Paulinus ; 
which  was  making  the  most  advanced  experiments  in 
socialism  when  the  Norman  William  was  asserting 
his  claim  to  the  throne  of  Plarold ; the  people  whose 
latest  dynasty  was  well-nigh  a century  and  a half 
old  when  the  American  Republic  was  born? 

What  of  China’s  individual  men  and  women?  — 
the  heroes  in  war,  if  unwilling  warriors,  martyrs  to 
unflinching  loyalty,  examples  of  filial  piety,  Con- 
fucian  moralists,  Taoist  mystics,  and  Buddhist  pil- 
grims, statesmen,  philosophers,  and  political  econ- 
omists. What  of  the  one  hundred  volumes  of  the 
biographies  of  famous  worthies,  of  the  twenty 
volumes  of  the  illustrious  names  of  the  Manchu  era, 
of  even  those  twenty-five  hundred  enrolled  in  the 
pages  of  Giles’  “ Biographical  Dictionary  ”? 


6 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Is  all  this  solely  for  the  delectation  of  Sinologists 
and  antiquaries?  Young  men  and  women  of  Amer- 
ica may  find  here  surely  material  not  without  its 
use  in  the  cosmopolitan  life  of  to-day.  Dr.  Stein 
tells  us  he  found  a wooden  hammer  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  pitching  tents  a century  or  two  before  the 
Christian  era,  which  proved  so  useful  that  he  could 
not  resist  allowing  his  men  to  use  it  for  its  original 
purpose  for  the  rest  of  the  journey.  Even  so  the 
long  buried  past  of  China  may  be  turned  to  good 
account  in  these  modern  days. 

To  know  China  and  something  of  its  four  thou- 
sand years  of  continuous  history  is  to  have  some 
touch  with  the  world  movements  as  old  as  Babylon 
and  as  young  as  the  day’s  newspaper,  to  have  a 
background  on  which  the  history  of  our  own  race 
and  of  our  own  land  becomes  all  the  more  significant 
and  prophetic. 

With  intelligence  and  with  sympathy  we  can  watch 
the  new  come  forth  from  the  chrysalis  of  the  old 
and  even  as  the  most  sincere  lover  of  the  modern 
needs  to  know  the  political  and  social  conditions  out 
of  which  the  present  springs,  so  must  the  interested 
observer  of  the  fortunes  of  the  New  China  learn  that 
the  Old  China  was  by  no  means  comatose  or  mori- 
bund but  full  of  significance  and  latent  power. 

With  intelligence  and  sympathy  such  as  this, 
there  will  be  no  hesitation  in  using  for  the  new  China 
the  words  which  Longfellow  wrote  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  new  America. 

“ In  spite  of  rock  and  tempest’s  roar, 

In  spite  of  false  lights  on  the  shore, 


INTRODUCTORY 


7 


Sail  on  nor  fear  to  breast  the  sea ! 

Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  our  prayers,  our  tears, 
Our  faith  triumphant  o’er  our  fears, 

Are  all  with  thee, — are  all  with  thee.” 


CHAPTER  II 
PRELIMINARIES 


The  Name  — geographical  features — the  Eight- 
een Provinces  — people  — language. 

Name.  The  name,  China,  is  of  somewhat  uncer- 
tain origin.  It  is  generally  derived  from  that  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Ch‘in,  the  state  which  produced  the 
famous  Ch‘in  dynasty  (B.  C.  249—210)  under  which 
the  confederation  of  Chinese  states  was  transformed 
into  the  Empire.  The  name,  Tchina,  was  carried, 
it  is  said,  by  Malay  traders,  to  India  and  other 
Western  lands.  It  is  quite  in  accord  with  Chinese 
custom  to  speak  of  the  country  after  the  dynastic 
name,  as  during  the  Han  dynasty  the  Chinese  de- 
scribed themselves  “ Han  tsz  ” — “ sons  of  Han,”  and 
during  the  T‘ang  period  as  “ T'ang  jen  ” — “ Men  of 
T‘ang.”  But  the  word  “ Tchina also  occurs  in 
the  Hindu  “ Code  of  Manu and  the  phrase,  “ those 
from  the  land  of  Sinim  ” in  Isaiah  49:  12,  has  been 
generally  thought  to  refer  to  China.  Both  these 
passages  are,  of  course,  much  older  than  the  Ch‘in 
dynasty.  In  neither  case,  however,  is  the  reference 
certain  and  in  the  former  the  probabilities  are  all 
the  other  way.  Moreover,  the  state  of  Ch‘in,  which 
is  much  older  than  the  dynasty  of  the  name,  may  have 
easily  transmitted  its  name  through  contiguous 
countries  to  the  western  nations. 


PRELIMINARIES 


9 


In  the  classical  writings  of  Europe  (e.g.  the 
works  of  Ptolemy  and  Ammianus  Marcellinus)  China 
is  called  Serica , its  capital  Sera , and  its  people 
Seres.1  This  is  an  allusion  to  the  production, 
famous  from  very  early  times,  of  silk  (Mongolian, 
sirik;  Manchu,  sirghe).  The  Mediaeval  name  of 
Cathay  (e.g.  in  Marco  Polo)  was  applied  by  the 
peoples  of  Eastern  Europe  from  their  knowledge  of 
the  Khitans,  a branch  of  the  Tatar  family  which  was 
only  too  well  known  in  the  11th  and  12th  centuries. 
The  name  Cathay  is  still  preserved  in  Russia. 

In  China  itself  the  country,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
frequently  named  after  the  reigning  dynasty,  as,  for 
instance,  during  Han  times  “ the  land  of  Han.”  A 
very  common  name  is  that  of  “ the  Middle  King- 
dom,” in  which  the  adjective  refers  to  the  fact  that 
in  the  olden  times  the  Empire  consisted  of  a series 
of  concentric  squares,  the  royal  domain  (i.e.  the 
present  province  of  Honan)  in  the  center,  and  the 
realms  of  nobles,  people,  feudatory  states,  barbar- 
ians forming  outer  territories.  This  name,  “ Chung 
Kuo,”  since  the  proclamation  of  the  Republic  is  being 
superseded  by  Chung  Hiva,  66  central  flower.” 

Other  names  in  common  use  include  Tien-lia  — 
“ under  heaven,”  i.e.  “ everything  beneath  the  sky,” 
and  Sze-hai — “ the  four  seas  ” (copied  by  the  Jap- 
anese in  the  name  given  to  their  own  land  Shi-kai). 

The  Country.  The  Chinese  Realm  includes  the 
five  great  divisions,  as  follows:  1st,  China  proper 

(i.e.  the  Eighteen  Provinces);  2nd,  Manchuria;  3rd, 
Mongolia ; 4th,  Chinese  Turkestan ; 5th,  Tibet. 
Until  recently  there  were  also  included  the  island  of 
Taiwan  or  Formosa,  ceded  to  Japan  in  1895,  and 


10 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


the  peninsula  of  Chosen,  or  Korea,  formally  annexed 
to  Japan  in  1910.  Over  much  of  the  territories  of 
Mongolia 2 and  Manchuria  the  authority  of  China 
is  at  present  extremely  nominal,  but  in  Tibet  her 
suzerainty  has  in  recent  years  been  asserted  with 
success.  The  student  who  would  make  himself  at 
all  familiar  with  the  history  of  China  is  urged  at  the 
outset  to  spend  a few  hours  over  the  best  obtainable 
map.3  It  will  assist  the  memory  to  understand  the 
meaning  of  a few  geographical  terms  which  occur 
frequently  in  the  names  of  places.  The  following 
will  be  found  especially  useful: 

Peh,  north,  as  in  Ptf-king  (north  capital). 

Nan , south,  as  in  Yaw-king  (south  capital). 

Tung , east,  as  in  Shan -tung  (east  of  the  moun- 
tains). 

Si,  wTest,  as  in  Shan-si  (west  of  the  mountains). 

Shan , mountain,  as  in  *S7iaw-tung  and  Shan- si. 

Hu,  lake,  as  in  Hu- peh  and  7/w-nan. 

Ho,  Kiang  and  Chwan , as  in  Huang-ho , Yangtse 
Kiang  and  Szechwan,  are  all  names  for  rivers  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  navigability. 

China  proper  lies  mainly  in  the  basins  of  three 
great  river  systems  flowing  from  west  to  east. 
These  are  the  Huang-ho,  or  Yellow  River,  known  as 
“ China’s  Sorrow  ” on  account  of  the  terrible  annual 
loss  of  life  and  property  from  the  floods ; the  Yangtse 
Kiang,  or  Willow  River,  known  in  its  upper  reaches 
as  the  Kin-sha -kiang  (River  of  the  Golden  Sands), 
the  Tai-kiang  (Great  River),  and  the  Chang-kiang 
(Long  River);  and  the  Chu-kiang  (Pearl  River), 
with  its  three  branches  of  which  the  Si-kiang  (West 
River)  which  enters  the  sea  at  Canton  is  the  most 


PRELIMINARIES 


11 


important.  A fourth  river  system  in  the  southwest 
flows  in  a southerly  direction  and  includes  the  im- 
portant streams,  the  Salween,  the  Meikong,  and  the 
Sonka. 

The  names  and  situations  of  the  Eighteen  Prov- 
inces into  which  China  is  at  present  divided  should 
be  carefully  learned  before  proceeding  further. 
They  may  be  taken  in  the  following  order : 

1.  In  the  North,  Chih-li  (“  Direct  Rule  ”)  or 

Peh-Chih-li ; 

Shan-si  (West  of  the  Moun- 
tains) ; 

Shensi  (Western  frontier)  ; 
Kan-suh  (“  Voluntary  Rever- 
ence ”)  a name  made  from 
combining  the  first  syllables 
of  two  chief  towns. 

2.  In  the  East,  Shan-tung  (East  of  the  Moun- 

tains) ; 

Kiang-su  (from  the  first  syl- 
lables of  Kiang-ning  and 
Su-chow)  ; 

Cheh-kiang  (“Crooked 
River  ”)  ; 

Fuh-kien  (“  Happily  Estab- 
lished ”). 

3.  In  the  South,  Kwang-tung  (“  Broad  East  ”)  ; 

Kwang-si  (“  Broad  West  ”). 

4.  In  the  West,  Yun-nan  (“  Cloudy  South  ”)  ; 

Sze-chwan  (“  Four  Streams  ”). 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


12 

5.  In  the  Center,  Ho-nan  (South  of  the  River)  ; 

Ngan-hwui  (or  An-hwui)  from 
combination  of  the  first  syl- 
lables of  Ngan-king  and 
Hwui-chau)  ; 

Kiang-si  (West  of  the  River)  ; 
Hw-peh  (North  of  the  Lake, 
i.e.  Tung-ting)  ; 

Hu-nan  (south  of  the  Lake)  ; 
Kwei-cliau  (“  Noble  Region  ”). 

For  administrative  purposes  the  Eighteen  Prov- 
inces are  arranged  as  Eight  Viceroyalties  and  Three 
Governorships.  The  Viceroyalties  are : — 

1.  Chih-li , with  seat  of  Govern- 

ment at  Tientsin ; 

2.  Min-che,  including  the  prov- 

inces of  Che-kiang  and  Fuh- 
kien ; 

3.  Hu-kwang , the  provinces  of 

Hu-peh  and  Hu-nan ; 

4.  Yun-kwei , the  provinces  of 

Yun-nan  and  Kwei-chau; 

5.  Szechwan; 

The  Two  Kiang , Kiang-si  and 
Kiang-ngan  (i.e.  Kiang-su 
and  Ngan-hwui)  ; 


6. 


PRELIMINARIES 


13 


7.  Shen-kan , the  provinces  of 

Shen-si  and  Kan-suh ; 

8.  The  Two  Kwang , the  prov- 

inces of  Kwang-tung  and 

Kwang-si. 

The  Governorships  are  those  of  Shantung,  Shansi 
and  Honan.  A province  is  ordinarily  divided  into 
a number  of  hien,  or  counties.  Strictly  speaking  a 
Men  consists  of  a walled  city  with  its  contiguous 
rural  districts.  Two  or  more  Men  are  grouped  as 
a fw,  or  first  class  city.  Several  fu  make  a tao , of 
which  the  chief  official  is  the  familiar  tao-tai. 

The  People.  The  people  of  China  are  of  Mon- 
golian stock,  but  in  the  course  of  ages  have  under- 
gone considerable  racial  change.  Tibetans,  Man- 
chus,  Tatars,4  Japanese,  Shans,  etc.,  have  all,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  recent  authorities,5  contributed 
to  the  prevailing  Chinese  type. 

From  very  early  times  the  Chinese  have  been  in 
contact  (and  very  often  also  in  conflict)  with  a large 
number  of  tribes  whom  we  may  describe  as  aboriginal. 
In  the  earliest  annals  of  China  we  read  of  wTars 
against  the  Man  in  the  south,  the  Yi  in  the  east, 
the  Tih  in  the  north,  and  the  Jung  in  the  west. 
To-day,  especially  in  the  southwest,  many  of  the 
aboriginal  tribes  remain,  known  as  Lolos,  Miaotsz, 
etc. 

The  'population  of  China  is  unknown  writh  any 
approach  to  exactitude.  Estimates  run  all  the  wray 
from  270  millions  to  420  millions.6  In  any  case  it 
is  the  most  populous  of  modern  states.  Professor 


14 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Giles  says  that  “ if  the  Chinese  people  were  to  file 
one  by  one  past  a given  point,  the  interesting  pro- 
cession would  never  come  to  an  end.  Before  the  last 
man  of  those  living  to-day  had  gone  by,  another  and 
a new  generation  would  have  grown  up,  and  so  on 
for  ever  and  ever.” 

The  language 7 of  the  people,  while  capable  of 
being  expressed  in  one  common  written  form,  the 
Wen-liy  has  in  speech  great  dialectical  variety.  The 
dialects,  of  which  there  are  said  to  be  as  many  as 
three  hundred  and  sixty,  are  in  some  cases  so  unlike 
as  to  constitute  practically  separate  languages. 
Of  these  the  Cantonese,  in  all  probability,  comes 
nearest  to  the  primitive  Chinese,  while  Pekingese 
(frequently  miscalled  Mandarin)  has  suffered  the 
most  from  phonetic  decay.  The  latter,  however,  has 
most  present-day  importance  as  the  language  of 
diplomacy  and  official  life. 

The  social  life  of  the  Chinese  may  be  studied  in 
detail  in  a large  number  of  reliable  and  interesting 
works.8 


NOTES 


1.  For  the  classical  allusions  to  China  the  student 
should  consult  “ Textes  d’auteurs  Grecs  et  Latins  ” 
relatifs  a l’extreme-orient  depuis  le  IVme  siecle  avant  J. 
C.  jusq’au  XIVme  siecle,  par  Georges  Coedes.”  (Ernest 
Leroux,  Editeur). 

2.  Immediately  after  the  Revolution  (1911)  Mon- 
golia asserted  its  independence  and  elected  an  ec- 
clesiastical ruler. 

3.  In  addition  to  studying  the  map  the  student 
may  read  with  profit  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams’  “ The 
Middle  Kingdom,”  I 1—257 ; Capt.  Brinkley’s  “ China,” 
I 1-36.  For  special  portions  there  are  numerous  travel 
books,  e.  g.  Mr.  A.  Little’s  “ Through  the  Yang-tsze 
Gorges.”  The  Travels  of  the  Abbe  Hue  are  in  all  re- 
spects delightful. 

4.  “ Tatar,”  not  “ Tartar.”  The  latter  spelling  is 

due  to  the  historic  pun  of  S.  Louis  of  France,  who 
wished  to  consign  the  disturbers  of  the  world’s  peace 
to  Tartarus.  His  reply  to  his  mother,  Blanche  of  Cas- 
tile, was  as  follows:  “ Mere,  si  les  Tatars  arrivent  nous 

les  ferons  retourner  au  Tartare  d’ou  ils  viennent.” 
(Pauthier.) 

5.  See  Prof.  Hirth  in  Ency.  Brit.  (11th  Ed.)  Art. 
China. 

6.  The  most  recent  review  of  census  operations  in 
China  is  contained  in  a paper  by  W.  W.  Rockhill.  See 
Royal  Geographical  Society’s  Journal,  July,  1912,  p. 
69.  Mr.  Rockhill’s  estimate  is  329,617,750,  which  in- 
cludes 2,000,000  for  Tibet  and  1,800,000  for  Mon- 
golia. 

7.  A good  popular  account  of  the  language  is  given 

15 


16 


NOTES 


by  Sir  R.  K.  Douglas,  “ The  Language  and  Literature 
of  China  ” (1875).  An  interesting  analysis  of  the  ideo- 
graphs is  contained  in  Frank  H.  Chalfant’s  “ Early 
Chinese  Writing  ” (1906). 

8.  Perhaps  the  best  of  these  is  the  Rev.  A.  H. 
Smith’s  “ Village  Life  in  China.” 


CHAPTER  III 


“ IN  THE  BEGINNING  ” 

Origins  — P'an  Ku  — the  Three  August  Periods 
— the  ten  periods  of  Ascent. 

Origins.  The  subject  of  Chinese  origins  is,  to 
say  the  least,  a thorny  one,  and  the  discussion  of  it 
in  any  detail  would  take  us  out  of  the  uncertain 
mists  of  legend  into  the  yet  more  uncertain  mists  of 
theory  and  conjecture.  Some  maintain  that  the 
Chinese  entered  their  present  abode  from  the  north- 
west ; others  that,  so  far  as  anything  shows  to  the 
contrary,  they  have  occupied  their  present  abodes 
from  time  immemorial.  The  latest  authority  on  the 
subject  writes:  “Whether  the  Chinese  were  seated 

in  their  later  homes  from  time  immemorial,  as  their 
own  historians  assume,  or  whether  they  arrived  there 
from  abroad,  as  some  foreign  scholars  have  pre- 
tended, cannot  be  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  his- 
torical critics.  Indeed,  anthropological  arguments 
seem  to  contradict  the  idea  of  any  connection  with 
Babylonians,  Egyptians,  Assyrians  or  Indians.”  1 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that 
in  the  great  shifting  of  peoples  caused  by  the  influx 
of  Semitic  tribes  into  the  Euphrates  Valley  about 
b.  c.  4000,  the  Turanian  civilization,  known  as 
Sumerian,  may  have  so  far  pushed  eastwards  as  to 

have  influenced  the  peopling  of  the  present  north- 

17 


18 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


west  provinces  of  China.  It  is  quite  possible  to  con- 
ceive of  the  arrival  there  of  whole  populations  who 
had  acquired  the  old  civilization,  or  of  the  trans- 
mission of  the  elements  of  Sumerian  culture  through 
individual  fugitives.  At  any  rate,  the  distinguish- 
ing traits  of  the  Chinese,  their  industry,  their  agri- 
cultural skill,  their  arts,  methods  of  divination, 
primitive  ideographs,  and  general  peace-loving  dis- 
position are  not  unlike  traits  which  reveal  themselves 
among  the  pre-Semitic  dwellers  in  the  Euphrates 
Valley.  A careful  analysis  of  the  oldest  ideograms 
reveals  that  the  matriarchate  prevailed,2  that  di- 
vination by  means  of  the  tortoise  shell  was  in  common 
use,  that  the  male  child  was  valued  for  his  capacity 
for  field  work,  that  the  north  was  regarded  as  the 
land  upon  which  they  had  turned  their  backs,  the 
south  the  jungle  inhabited  by  wild  beasts,  while  the 
east  appeared  to  them  as  a forest  through  which  the 
rising  sun  cast  its  rays.  Many  signs  suggest  a pas- 
toral stage.  The  radical  for  “ sheep  ” (yang)  ap- 
pears in  the  word  “ beautiful  ” which  is  literally  “ big 
sheep  ” ; “ righteousness  ” is  “ sheep  ” and  the  first 
personal  pronoun;  “to  judge  rightly”  is  literally 
“ to  talk  sheep.”  The  symbol  for  “ house,”  pre- 
served in  so  many  of  the  modern  characters,  per- 
petuates the  sloping  roof  of  the  old  Central  Asian 
tent  with  the  turned  up  edges  still  to  be  seen  in 
pagodas  and  temples.  The  pastoral  stage  must  have 
passed  quickly,  so  far  as  the  Chinese  proper  are 
concerned,  for  the  occupation  is  one  for  which  the 
Chinese  of  many  generations  have  had  a distinct 
aversion. 

In  any  attempt  that  we  make  to  reproduce  in 


“ IN  THE  BEGINNING  ” 


19 


imagination  the  China  of  old  time  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  it  included  but  a small  portion  of  the 
present  eighteen  provinces.  The  earliest  China 
probably  extended  little  beyond  the  present  provinces 
of  Shansi,  Shensi  and  Kansuh.  It  was  not  until  the 
time  of  the  Ch‘in  Dynasty  (B.  C.  250)  that  the  whole 
of  the  present  China  came  under  one  government. 

P‘an  Ku.  The  legendary  history  of  China  ex- 
tends over  many  millions  of  years.  In  the  chron- 
icles of  the  Han  Dynasty  it  is  said  that  “ from  the 
creation  to  the  capture  of  the  lin  in  the  days  of 
Confucius  (B.  C.  481)  a period  elapsed  of  2,267,000 
and  odd  years.”  Of  course,  as  Mayers  remarks, 
“ no  actual  weight  is  attached  even  by  Chinese  writers 
to  the  statements  handed  down  by  the  fabulists  of 
antiquity  regarding  prehistoric  epochs  and  dynastic 
lines.”  From  the  time  of  the  first  man,  P'an  Kw, 
who  corresponds  more  or  less  with  the  Indian  Manu 
and  the  Persian  Yima,  some  have  reckoned  as  many 
as  ninety-six  millions  of  years.  P‘an  Ku  separated 
heaven  and  earth,  as  was  done  in  the  Egyptian  story 
of  Nut  and  Keb.  A philosopher  of  the  11th  Cen- 
tury describes  him  thus : “ P‘an  Ku  came  into  being 

in  the  great  Waste;  his  beginning  is  unknown.  He 
understood  the  ways  of  Heaven  and  Earth  and  com- 
prehended the  permutations  of  the  two  principles  of 
Nature.  He  became  the  Chief  and  Prince  of  the 
Three  Powers.  Hereupon  development  began  from 
Chaos.”  Dr.  Williams  says:  “They  (the  Chinese 

artists)  picture  him  holding  a chisel  and  mallet  in 
his  hands,  splitting  and  fashioning  vast  masses  of 
granite  floating  confusedly  in  space.  Behind  the 
openings  his  powerful  hand  has  made  are  seen  the 


20 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


sun,  moon  and  stars,  monuments  of  his  stupendous 
labors ; at  his  right  hand,  inseparable  companions 
of  his  toils,  but  whose  generation  is  left  in  obscurity, 
stand  the  dragon,  the  phoenix  and  the  tortoise,  and 
sometimes  the  unicorn,  divine  types  and  progenitors 
with  himself  of  the  animal  creation.  His  efforts  were 
continued  eighteen  thousand  years,  and  by  small  de- 
grees he  and  his  work  increased ; the  heavens  rose, 
the  earth  spread  out  and  thickened,  and  P‘an  Ku 
grew  in  stature,  six  feet  away  every  day,  till,  his 
labors  done,  he  died  for  the  benefit  of  his  handiwork. 
His  head  became  mountains,  his  breath  wind  and 
clouds,  and  his  voice  thunder ; his  limbs  were  changed 
into  four  poles,  his  veins  into  rivers,  his  sinews  into 
the  undulations  of  the  earth’s  surface,  and  his  flesh 
into  fields ; his  beard,  like  Berenice’s  hair,  was  turned 
into  stars,  his  skin  and  hair  into  herbs  and  trees, 
and  his  teeth,  bones  and  marrow  into  metals,  rocks 
and  precious  stones ; his  dropping  sweat  increased 
to  rain,  and,  lastly,  the  insects  which  stuck  to  his 
body  were  transformed  into  people.”  3 

The  Three  August  Periods.  After  P‘an  Ku  follow 
three  periods  which  may  be  described  as  follows : 

1.  The  Reign  of  Heaven , during  which  the 
heavens  were  actually  formed. 

2.  The  Reign  of  Earth , during  which  the  earth 
received  its  shape. 

3.  The  Reign  of  Man , during  which  men  and 
other  terrestrial  beings  took  their  proper  place  in 
the  universe. 

In  the  first  of  these  periods  twelve  brothers 
reigned  as  the  Tien  Wang  or  Heaven  Kings,  each 


44  IN  THE  BEGINNING”  £1 

for  a period  of  18,000  years,  a monstrous  brood 
with  the  body  of  serpents. 

In  the  second  period  reigned  the  eleven  brothers, 
known  as  the  Ti  Wang,  or  Earth  Kings,  who  dis- 
covered the  division  of  day  and  night,  and  the  di- 
vision of  the  year  into  months  of  thirty  days.  These 
too  were  a monstrous  progeny  made  up  of  the 
membra  disjecta  of  dragons,  serpents,  horses  and 
human  beings.4 

In  the  third  period  reigned  the  nine  Jen  Wang, 
or  Man  Kings,  with  faces  of  men  and  bodies  of 
dragons  or  serpents.  They  divided  the  world  into 
nine  empires,  one  for  each  of  the  monstrous  brothers. 

The  Ten  Periods  of  Ascent.  Ten  periods 
follow,  or  nine,  if  we  regard  the  whole  of  the  pre- 
ceding epoch  as  making  up  the  first,  during  which 
human  civilization  is  seen  on  the  ascent.  We  see 
men  gradually  ceasing  to  live  in  caves  of  the  rocks, 
or  nests  of  the  trees.  We  see  them  learning  to  clothe 
themselves  in  the  skins  of  beasts.  We  have  culture 
myths,  moreover,  like  that  of  the  Chinese  Prome- 
theus, S'ui  Jen , who  discovered  the  means  of  produc- 
ing fire,  by  watching  a bird  pecking  at  the  dry  branch 
of  a tree.  The  invention  of  cooking  followed,  pos- 
sibly in  a way  not  unlike  that  described  by  Charles 
Lamb  in  his  famous  essay  on  roast  pig-5  Then 
came  other  arts  of  life,  including  that  of  dancing 
which,  we  are  told,  came  into  vogue  not  as  an  amuse- 
ment but  as  a hygienic  exercise.  It  is  perhaps  per- 
missible to  regard  this  statement  as  an  afterthought 
on  the  part  of  some  austere  philosopher  or  moralist. 
There  was  learned  withal  the  principle  which  has  had 


22 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


such  continuous  illustration  throughout  all  Chinese 
history,  namely,  “ the  virtue  of  handing  over  the 
throne  to  a successor,  which  stands  in  relation  with 
the  principles  of  heaven.” 


NOTES 


1.  Encyclopedia  Brit.  (11th  Ed.)  Art.  China. 

2.  Cf.  also  description  of  Fu  Hsi:  “ Before  his 

time  the  people  were  like  unto  beasts,  clothing  them- 
selves in  skins,  and  feeding  themselves  on  raw  flesh, 
hnoroing  their  mothers  but  not  their  fathers.”  (Mayers, 
“ Chinese  Readers’  Manual,”  p.  48.) 

3.  S.  Wells  Williams,  “ The  Middle  Kingdom,”  II 
139. 

4.  It  is  at  this  time,  the  legends  say,  that  the  arts 
of  eating,  drinking  and  sleeping  were  invented ! 

5.  Charles  Lamb  obtained  the  story  from  his  friend, 
the  Chinese  scholar,  Thomas  Manning. 


23 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  FIVE  RULERS 

The  Five  Rulers  — Fu  Hsi  — Shen  Nung  — 
Huang  Ti — Yao  and  Shun , the  Model  Emperors. 

The  Five  Rulers.  The  so-called  period  of  the 
Five  Rulers  may  be  regarded  as  marking  the  transi- 
tion from  the  legendary  to  the  historical  period. 
There  are,  however,  several  dissimilar  systems  of 
chronology  for  it.  Some  Chinese  authorities  reckon 
from  the  age  of  the  Nest  Builders,  others  from 
various  others  of  those  legendary  divisions  of  time 
which  have  just  been  mentioned.  The  best  method 
of  reckoning,  in  all  probability,  is  to  start  from  the 
culture  hero,  Fu  Hsi , and  to  make  up  the  five  by  the 
inclusion  of  Fu  Hsi’s  two  semi-mythical  successors, 
Shen  Nung  and  Huang  Ti,  and  the  two  Emperors 
par  excellence  of  the  Shu  King,  Yao  and  Shun. 

Fu  Hsi.  The  greatest  of  all  the  traditional  bene- 
factors of  the  legendary  era  of  Chinese  history  is 
Fu  Hsi,  who  by  many  is  reckoned  as  a genuine  his- 
torical character.  Definite  statements  are  made 
about  him,  although  definiteness  of  statement  is  by 
no  means  invariably  a proof  of  historicity.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  born,  miraculously,  near  Singanfu, 
the  ancient  capital  of  China,  and  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood, in  the  province  of  Shensi,  his  grave  is  still 
pointed  out  and  reverenced.  His  date  is  also  given 

definitelv  enough  as  B.  C.  2852.  Yet  the  Chinese 

24 


THE  FIVE  RULERS 


25 


accounts  describe  him  as  possessing  a body  which 
terminated  in  the  scaly  folds  of  a serpent,  and  as  hav- 
ing six  dragons  (the  predecessors  of  the  Six  Govern- 
ing Boards)  as  his  counselors.  He  is  represented 
in  art  with  the  horny  protuberances  which  in  the 
case  of  Oriental  law-givers  generally  (even  in  the 
case  of  Moses,  according  to  Michelangelo)  are  re- 
garded as  the  symbols  of  intellectual  power.  Among 
the  many  useful  inventions  ascribed  to  Fu  Hsi  by 
a grateful  posterity,  are  the  following: 

1.  Marriage , together  with  the  ceremonies  with 
which  marriage  was  contracted. 

2.  Musical  Instruments , especially  the  thirty-five 
stringed  lute. 

3.  The  Eight  Trigrams,1  and  arrangement  of 
the  whole  and  the  broken  line  in  a series  of  eight 
permutations,  each  the  symbol  of  some  element  in 
nature,  on  which  was  based  in  later  times  the  whole 
complex  system  of  Chinese  divination  as  contained 
in  the  Yi  King. 

4.  Writing , the  use  of  ideograms  instead  of  the 
more  primitive  system  of  knot  notation,  known  in 
ancient  Peru  as  quipu.  This  invention  is,  however, 
ascribed  also  to  Sui  Jen  and  to  several  others. 

5.  The  use  of  the  Six  Domestic  Animals,  namely, 
the  horse,  the  dog,  the  ox,  the  sheep,  the  pig  and 
the  fowl. 

6.  The  use  of  the  Mulberry  Leaf  for  the  feeding 
of  silk  worms. 

To  Fu  Hsi  are  also  ascribed  the  weaving  of  nets 
and  snares  for  the  catching  of  fish,  the  worship  of 
the  Supreme  Being,  whom  they  called  Sliang  Ti,2  and 
whatever  of  other  fruits  or  indications  of  civilization 


26 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


there  were  for  which  the  Chinese  desired  to  claim  a 
very  remote  past. 

Shen  Nung.  B.  C.  2737-2705.  The  successor 
of  Fu  Hsi,  who  selected  him  when  dying,  was  Shen 
Nung , generally  known  as  the  “ Divine  Husband- 
man.” He  is  depicted  with  the  body  of  a man  and 
the  head  of  an  ox,  doubtless  in  allusion  to  his  interest 
in  agriculture.  It  is  related  that  he  was  the  son 
of  a princess,  and  was  miraculously  born  near  the 
river  Kiang.  “ He  first  fashioned  timber  into 
plows,  and  taught  the  people  the  art  of  husbandry. 
He  discovered  the  curative  virtues  of  plants,  and  in- 
stituted the  practice  of  holding  markets  for  the 
exchange  of  commodities.”  Moreover  he  contests 
with  Fu  Hsi  interest  in  the  development  of  music, 
as  the  traditional  inventor  of  the  K‘in,  or  five 
stringed  lute. 

Huang  Ti.  B.  C.  2704-2595.  Huang  Ti , the 
“ Yellow  Emperor,”  succeeded  Shen  Nung,  accord- 
ing to  one  story,  by  usurpation.  He  is  said  to  have 
introduced  the  use  of  wheeled  vehicles  and  to  have 
invented  ships,  armor  and  pottery.  In  his  reign  a 
manifestation  was  vouchsafed  of  the  two  fabulous 
beasts,  the  Griffin  and  the  Kilin,  a highly  valued 
indication  of  Heaven’s  pleasure  in  a wise  and  benev- 
olent rule.  The  limits  of  China  are  said  to  have 
been  extended  during  this  reign  eastwards  to  Shan- 
tung and  southward  to  the  Yangtse  Kiang  valley. 
Huang  Ti  died  at  the  age  of  111  years.  The  Chinese 
historian,  Ssu-ma  Ch‘ien,3  known  as  the  “ Herodotus 
of  China,”  commences  his  history  at  this  point. 
Some  modern  writers,  without  very  tangible  evidence, 
have  seen  an  introduction  of  foreign  elements  of 


FIT  HSI 


THE  FIVE  RULERS 


27 

civilization  into  China  about  this  time.  The  men- 
tion of  the  hostile  Hun-yu,  generally  identified  with 
the  Hiung-nu,  the  ancestors  of  the  Huns,  suggests 
danger  and  pressure  from  the  tribes  to  the  north. 
Internally,  some  further  advances  are  described,  in- 
cluding the  use  of  milfoil  ( Achillea  millefolium)  for 
purposes  of  divination.4  The  legendary  minister, 
Tsang  Kie,  who  is  spoken  of  as  the  first  state  histo- 
rian, is  one  of  the  many  to  whom  has  been  assigned 
the  invention  of  writing.  From  watching  the  im- 
pressions made  by  the  footprints  of  birds  he  is  said 
to  have  developed  a system  of  ideographs  which  com- 
bined the  use  of  the  trigrams  of  Fu  Hsi.  His  fellow 
minister,  Tsu-sung,  is  reported  to  have  achieved  much 
the  same  result  from  studying  the  constellations  in 
the  heavens.  An  important  place  also  in  the  tradi- 
tions of  this  reign  is  occupied  by  the  Emperor’s  wife, 
Liu  Tsu,  better  known  as  “ the  Lady  of  Si-ling,” 
whose  skill  in  the  management  of  silkworms  endeared 
her  to  posterity.  She  was  afterwards  deified  as 
Yuan-fi  and  is  worshiped  on  a certain  day  in  the  9th 
month.  In  the  Wei-ki  she  is  referred  to  in  the  fol- 
lowing verse: 

“ Si  Ling-shi,  the  Empress  of  Huang  Ti,  began  to  rear 
silkworms  : 

At  the  period  Huang  Ti  invented  the  art  of  making 
clothing.” 

The  immediate  successors  of  Huang  Ti  need  not 
be  mentioned.  Chinese  history,  but  for  names,  is 
a blank  till  we  come  to  the  two  “ Model  Emperors  ” 
of  the  Confucian  Classics,  Yao  and  Shun.  With  the 
description  of  these  reigns,  doubtless  idealized  by 


28 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


the  literati , begins  the  record  of  the  Shu  King  or 
“ Book  of  History.” 

Yao.  B.  C.  2357—2258.  Yao,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  born  in  the  province  of  Honan  and  to 
have  been  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Ti  K‘u,  is  described 
as  being  “ gifted  without  being  proud,  and  exalted 
without  being  insolent.  He  wore  a yellow  cap  and 
a plain  silk  dress.  He  drove  in  a red  car  drawn  by 
a white  horse.”  Says  the  Shu  King , 66  he  united 
and  transformed  the  myriad  states ; and  so  the  black 
haired  people  5 were  transformed.  The  result  was 
concord.”  His  desire,  during  the  long  reign  of 
ninety-eight  (some  make  it  only  seventy)  years,  for 
the  welfare  of  the  people  was  shown  by  the  placing 
of  a tablet  outside  the  palace  on  which  any  one 
might  write  advice  with  regard  to  the  government. 
A drum  near  by  enabled  the  man  with  a grievance 
to  make  known  his  desires  to  the  king.6  The  most 
striking  proof,  however,  of  Yao’s  laudable  desire  to 
serve  the  people  is  afforded  through  the  account 
given  of  the  choice  of  Shun  as  his  successor  on  the 
throne.  For  some  years  the  ravages  of  a great 
flood,  caused  probably,  as  to-day,  by  the  overflowing 
of  the  Huang-ho,  had  defied  the  utmost  efforts  of 
the  Minister  of  Works,  whose  name  was  Kun.  At 
length  the  monarch,  grieved  by  the  growing  desola- 
tion of  the  realm,  requested  the  people  to  name  some 
one  who  would  make  himself  master  of  the  situation. 
They  recommended  “ an  unmarried  man  of  the  com- 
mon people  named  Shun.”  Shun  was  found  to  be 
the  son  of  a blind  man ; “ his  father  was  unprincipled, 
his  mother  insincere,  and  his  younger  brother  arro- 
gant.” Yet,  notwithstanding  all  these  handicaps, 


THE  FIVE  RULERS 


29 


he  had  been  able  to  live  with  them  in  peace  and  had 
even  brought  about  some  improvement.  Yao  con- 
cluded to  try  him  and  the  experiment  was  in  every 
way  successful.  Everything  that  Shun  attempted 
prospered.  “ At  the  end  of  the  year  the  place  where 
he  lived  became  a village,  in  two  years  it  became  a 
town,  and  in  three  years  a capital.”  Shun’s  associ- 
ation in  the  Empire  was  ratified ; he  was  received  by 
marriage  into  the  royal  family,  and  named  by  Yao 
as  his  heir.  But  though  men  looked  forward  with 
confident  expectation  to  the  reign  of  Shun,  there 
was  universal  sorrow  when  the  good  King  Yao  was 
gathered  to  his  fathers.  44  For  three  years,”  we  are 
told,  44  no  music  was  played  anywhere.” 

Shun.  B.  C.  2258-2206.  Shun  who,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  chosen  by  Yao  for  his  good  qualities,  be- 
came sovereign  in  B.  C.  2258  instead  of  Yao’s  worth- 
less son,  Tan  Chu.  He  speedily  justified  the  old 
Emperor’s  choice  and  the  reputation  he  had  already 
gained  during  the  years  of  regency.  His  career, 
which  is  described  in  that  section  of  the  44  Shu  King  ” 
known  as  the  44  Canon  of  Shun,”  largely  follows  the 
outlines  of  the  preceding  reign.  To  the  details 
already  given  of  his  earlier  life  we  may  add  that  he 
was  born  in  Honan  and  that  his  own  mother  had  died 
whilst  he  was  still  young.  His  father  remarried  and 
the  boy  had  with  his  stepmother  a 44  sad,  sour  time.” 
Attempts  were  even  made  on  his  life,  but  he  behaved 
with  such  exemplary  patience  that  he  attracted,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  attention  of  Yao.  For  his  con- 
duct as  a young  man  Shun  has  been  enrolled  among 
the  twenty-four  illustrious  examples  of  filial  piety. 
He  labored  incessantly  to  support  those  who  abused 


30 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


him,  fishing,  making  pottery  and  working  in  the 
fields.  When  he  was  plowing,  the  birds  and  beasts 
are  said  to  have  come  of  their  own  accord  to  weed 
his  fields  and  help  to  draw  the  plow.  On  ascending 
the  throne  his  virtues  were  equally  evident,  and  loyal 
subjects  helped  to  bear  the  burdens  of  the  state. 
He  regulated  the  Calendar,  standardized  weights 
and  measures,  and  made  mitigations  of  the  punish- 
ments hitherto  in  vogue,  altering  the  size  of  the  whip 
which  was  used  in  the  courts  and  the  thickness  of 
the  birch  rod  which  was  employed  for  the  chastise- 
ment of  school  boys.  His  choice  of  Yii  to  be  his 
successor  followed  the  precedent  of  Yao’s  selection 
of  himself.  The  story  of  this  early  period  may  seem 
thus  far  to  lack  excitement,  yet  surely  it  is  better 
to  read  these  records  of  patriarchal  regard  for  the 
welfare  of  a nation,  and  of  the  gradually  accumu- 
lated fruits  of  culture,  than  the  stories  of  rapine  and 
bloodshed  wdiich  fill  so  many  pages  of  the  early  his- 
tory of  Greece  and  Rome.  Shun  put  his  own  ideal 
of  rulership  in  a poem  which  is  included  in  the  “ Shu 
King.”  It  runs  as  follows : 

“ When  the  members  work  joyfully 

The  head  rises  grandly; 

And  the  duties  of  all  the  offices  are  fully  discharged; 

When  the  head  is  intelligent 

The  members  are  good, 

And  all  affairs  will  be  happily  performed.” 


NOTES 


1.  The  Eight  Trigrams,  with  their  signification,  are 
as  follows: 

--  Heaven  ; — — Earth;—  —Thunder  ;zz  zz  Mountains ; 
— — Fire ; — — Water ; Steam ; = = Wind. 

2.  The  most  ancient  of  the  names  for  the  Supreme 
Being.  Shen,  the  term  sometimes  used,  especially  by 
some  of  the  early  missionaries,  denotes  merely  a spirit 
(cf.  jinn).  Tien  Chu  (Heaven  Lord)  was  the  term 
favored  by  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  but  is  ob- 
jected to  by  many  on  the  ground  that  it  was  originally 
the  name  of  one  of  eight  Taoist  deities  introduced  about 
B.  C.  250. 

3.  Ssii-ma  Ch'ien’s  “ Historical  Records  ” were 
written  about  B.  C.  90  from  materials  collected  by  his 
father.  A translation  into  French  has  recently  been 
published  by  M.  Chavannes. 

4.  The  “Shu  King”  says:  “Consult  the  tortoise 

shell  and  the  divining  stalks.” 

5.  Li-ming,  a common  name  for  the  Chinese.  Cf. 
the  similar  appellation  given  to  the  ancient  Babylo- 
nians, e.g.  “ Laws  of  Hammurabi,”  “ Go  forth  like 
the  sun  over  the  Black  Head  Race.” 

6.  Hirth  attributes  this  to  Shun,  but  Pauthier  to  Yao. 
Probably  the  plan  was  common  to  both  reigns,  answer- 
ing to  the  modern  so-called  “ Cymbals  of  Oppression.” 


31 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  HSIA  DYNASTY 
B.  C.  2205-1766. 

Yu  — his  successors  — T‘ai  K‘ang  — Chung 
K‘ang  — the  infamy  of  Chieh  — the  princess  Mo  Hsi 
— fall  of  the  dynasty. 

Yii.  The  principality  of  Hsia  had  been  bestowed 
upon  Yii  before  the  death  of  Shun,  and  the  new 
King,  immediately  upon  ascending  the  throne,  made 
it  the  name  of  the  new  dynasty.  Like  his  twro  pred- 
ecessors, Yii  was  a “ Model  Emperor.”  “ His  voice 
wTas  the  standard  of  sounds,  his  body  the  standard 
of  measures  of  length.”  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
native  of  the  province  of  Szechwan.  His  exploits, 
wrhich  are  chronicled  in  that  section  of  the  “ Shu 
King  ” known  as  the  “ Tribute  of  Yu redounded 
to  the  advantage  of  the  whole  country.  He  placed 
five  sorts  of  instruments  at  his  palace  gates  so  that 
the  people  wrho  sought  his  presence  might  acquaint 
him  with  the  nature  of  their  business.  He  divided 
the  country  into  nine  provinces  and  so  arranged  the 
Imperial  domain  that  it  formed  the  central  square 
of  a ^ series  of  concentric  territories.  These  were 
named  respectively:  1,  the  royal  domain;  2,  the 

domain  of  the  nobles ; 3,  the  domain  of  peace ; 4,  the 
domain  of  restraint  (for  barbarians  and  exiles)  ; 5, 

the  wild  domain.  He  was  a great  engineer  and 

32 


THE  HSIA  DYNASTY 


S3 


labored  for  nine  years  at  the  work  of  leading  the 
waters  of  the  Huang-ho  back  to  their  proper  chan- 
nel. During  this  time  he  was  so  absorbed  that  he 
took  little  note  of  food  and  clothing  and  even  thrice 
passed  the  door  of  his  own  house  without  looking  in, 
although  he  heard  from  within  the  wailing  of  his 
infant  son.  He  “ made  cuttings  through  the  nine 
mountains,  formed  the  nine  lakes,  regulated  the 
course  of  the  nine  rivers,  fixed  the  limits  of  the  nine 
provinces.”  “ Among  the  most  marvelous  of  the 
achievements  ascribed  to  the  handiwork  of  Yii,”  says 
Mayers,  “ is  the  opening  of  a passage  for  the  western 
waters  through  the  present  defile  of  Wushan.”  His 
ideal  is  expressed  in  the  saying  which  has  been  at- 
tributed to  him,  “ I just  think  of  working  incessantly 
every  day.”  Evidently  his  industry  was  appre- 
ciated, for  the  Chinese  saying  runs,  “ How  grand 
was  the  achievement  of  Yii!  How  far  reaching  his 
glorious  energy!  But  for  Yii  we  should  all  have 
been  fishes.”  Under  this  energetic  and  earnest  mon- 
arch China  prospered  greatly  and  the  dominion  was 
extended  westward  to  the  “ moving  sand  ” (the  desert 
of  Gobi),  whilst  the  Miao  tribes  of  aborigines  were 
subdued  towards  the  south.  In  connection  with  the 
division  of  the  land  into  the  nine  provinces  the  story 
may  be  mentioned  that  Yii  made  nine  brazen  vases 
or  tripods  upon  the  preservation  of  which  depended 
the  preservation  of  the  dynasty.  Another  interest- 
ing legend  associates  Yii  with  the  first  discovery  of 
wine.  The  first  manufacture  was  due  to  a man 
named  I Ti  who  took  some  to  the  daughter  of  the 
Emperor.  She  in  turn  brought  it  to  Yii  who  tasted 
it  and  poured  the  rest  upon  the  ground.  He  then 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


34 

ordered  the  discoverer  to  be  banished  from  the  coun- 
try and  forbade  any  further  knowledge  of  the  dan- 
gerous art.1 

The  Successors  of  Yu.  Eighteen  monarchs 
reigned  during  the  period  assigned  to  this  dynasty. 
The  era  was,  however,  not  without  its  vicissitudes. 
T‘ai  K'ang,  who  as  the  assistant  of  Yii,  is  said  to 
have  paced  the  whole  land  from  east  to  west,  offended 
the  people  by  his  gay  mode  of  living  and  ruined  their 
harvests  by  his  hunting  expeditions.  He  was  de- 
throned in  B.  C.  2160.  His  successor,  Chung  K'ang , 
is  best  known  through  an  eclipse  which  was  chroni- 
cled in  his  reign  and  which  the  court  astronomers 
had  failed  to  predict.  Modern  astronomers  have 
spent  much  labor,  with  no  very  satisfactory  results, 
in  endeavoring  to  fix  the  date  of  this  event.2  An 
interregnum  3 is  reckoned  from  B.  C.  2118  to  2079 
and  the  dynasty  gradually  declined  until  the  end 
came  under  the  infamous  Chieh.  This  tyrant,  with 
the  aid  of  his  no  less  infamous  consort,  Mo  Hsi , a- 
slave  who  had  been  presented  to  him  in  B.  C.  1786 
by  one  of  the  conquered  chiefs  as  a propitiatory 
offering,  filled  full  the  cup  of  abominations.  Among 
other  choice  amusements  of  this  Chinese  Nero  was 
the  creation  of  a vast  lake  of  wine  in  which  he  would 
compel  his  subjects,  three  thousand  at  a time,  to 
plunge  at  the  sound  of  a drum,  whilst  he  and  his 
queen  and  courtiers  laughed  with  delight  at  their 
brutal  intoxication.  The  downfall  and  death  of 
the  last  of  the  Hsia  Kings  were  brought  about 
through  a revolution  headed  by  Ch'eng  T'ang , the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Shang.  The  tyrant, 
Chieh,  was  captured  and  sent  into  banishment. 


NOTES 


1.  The  so-called  “ Tablet  of  Yu,”  consisting  of  77 
characters,  on  Mt.  Heng  in  Hunan,  is  a forgery  going 
back  to  the  7th  or  8th  Century  A.  D. 

2.  It  has  been  identified  by  Professor  Russell  of 
Peking  and  by  Chalmers.  The  latter  assigns  it  to  Oc- 
tober 11  B.  C.  2155.  It  is  the  first  recorded  eclipse  in 
Chinese  history,  which  makes  reference  to  1000  solar 
and  to  500  lunar  eclipses. 

3.  During  this  interregnum  we  have  the  romantic 
story  of  the  exiled  Empress  Min  and  her  son  who 
worked  unknown  for  years  as  a shepherd  on  the  hills. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  cook  to  the  Prince  of 
Yu,  whose  two  daughters  he  married.  He  subsequently 
became  Emperor  under  the  name  of  Shao  K'ang. 


35 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  SHANG  DYNASTY 
B.  C.  1766-1122. 

T‘ang,  the  Completer  — Wu  Ting  — Lin  Sin  — 
Wu  Yin  — Chou  Hsin — the  “ Heater  ” and  the 
“ Copper  Pillar  ” — the  revolt  of  Wen  Wang  — Ki 
Tzu  and  the  conquest  of  Korea. 

Ch‘eng  T‘ang.  The  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 
Shang,  which  later  passes  into  the  Yin  dynasty,  is 
another  favorite  of  the  Confucian  historians.  He 
had,  we  are  told,  graven  upon  his  bath  the  words, 
thrice  repeated,  “ Renew  thyself  every  day.”  He 
was  careful  in  all  his  hunting  expeditions  to  diminish 
in  all  possible  ways  the  sufferings  of  the  victims  such 
as  were  necessitated  by  the  royal  sport.  His  espe- 
cial title  to  fame  is,  however,  in  his  offer  to  yield 
himself  as  a sacrifice  in  order  to  bring  to  an  end  a 
severe  seven  years’  famine  which  had  reduced  the 
country  to  great  extremities  of  distress.  Putting  on 
the  symbols  of  mourning,  he  mounted  his  car  and 
drove  to  a certain  designated  spot  at  the  foot  of  a 
mountain.  Here  he  dismounted,  prostrated  himself 
to  the  earth  and  made  confession  of  his  own  sins  and 
of  those  of  the  people.  Hardly  had  he  finished  his 
prayer  when  there  came  an  abundant  rain  and  the 
land  speedily  recovered  its  former  fertility.1  The 

credit  for  T‘ang’s  successful  reign  must  be  shared 

36 


THE  SHANG  DYNASTY 


37 


with  the  famous  minister,  I Yin,  who  was,  it  is  said, 
44  almost  what  Shun  had  been  to  Yao,  and  Yao  to 
Shun.”  A legend  declares  that  he  was  found  as  an 
infant  in  a hollow  mulberry  tree,  a story  probably 
due  to  the  name  of  his  birthplace.  His  enemies  said 
that  he  owed  his  elevation  to  his  skill  in  cooking, 
through  which  he  maintained  his  influence  over  his 
royal  master.  But,  cook  or  no  cook,  he  remained  a 
trusted  councilor  until  his  death  in  B.  C.  1713. 

Decline  of  the  Dynasty.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
Hsia  dynasty,  vicious  kings  soon  dimmed  the  glory 
of  the  dynasty  which  had  been  won  by  T4ang,  the 
Completer,  and  ruined  the  results  painfully  achieved. 
Wu  Ting  tried  his  best  to  stay  the  plague  of  wicked- 
ness by  going  back  to  the  people  for  his  chief  official, 
choosing  as  minister  a poor  artisan  whom,  under 
divine  inspiration,  he  had  beheld  in  a dream.  Lin 
Sim  (B.  C.  1225-1219)  put  all  responsibility  on  his 
ministers  and  refused  frankly  to  be  bothered  with 
any  of  the  duties  or  cares  of  government.  Wu  Yih 
(B.  C.  1198-1101)  openly  defied  the  gods  and  blas- 
phemed the  spirit  of  Heaven.  44  He  played  chess 
with  it  and  told  a man  to  make  its  moves.  When  the 
spirit  of  Heaven  lost,  he  derided  and  insulted  it ; and 
making  for  it  a leathern  bag,  he  filled  it  with  blood, 
hung  it  up  in  the  air,  and  shot  arrows  at  it.”  Poetic 
justice,  in  this  case,  came  with  no  halting  foot,  and 
the  blasphemous  libertine  was  struck  by  lightning 
and  died.2 

Chou  Hsin.  B.  C.  1154-1123.  The  climax  of 
evil  came  with  the  reign  of  Chou  Hsin,  or  Shu,  whose 
career  of  infamy  runs  in  many  respects  parallel  with 
that  of  Chieh.  The  list  of  his  enormities  is  summed 


38 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


up  in  the  “ Great  Declaration  ” of  the  Shu  King. 
The  good  advice  of  the  faithful  minister  and  relative, 
Pi  Kan , he  requited  with  the  brutal  order  addressed 
to  his  minions  to  take  out  the  heart  of  the  courage- 
ous councilor.  “ I have  heard,”  said  he,  “ that  a 
man’s  heart  has  seven  openings ; I would  fain  make 
the  experiment  upon  Pi  Kan.”  The  palace  and  the 
pleasure  grounds,  known  as  Luh  T‘ai  or  Deer  Tower, 
were  the  unhallowed  scenes  of  nameless  orgies.  To 
these  he  was  stimulated  and  encouraged  by  his  mis- 
tress, T‘a  Chi , one  of  the  most  sinister  names  in  the 
history  of  China.  This  lady,  who  was  a daughter 
of  the  chief  of  Su  and  a prize  of  war,  distinguished 
herself  by  the  invention  of  sundry  ingenious  instru- 
ments of  torture.  Among  these  were  the  “ Heater  ” 
and  the  “ Copper  Pillar .”  The  latter  was  a metal 
column,  well  greased,  which  was  laid  over  a pit  of 
burning  charcoal.  The  unhappy  victims  of  the 
royal  caprice  or  mirth  were  pressingly  invited  to 
walk  across  this  fatal  bridge,  with  a result  which  was 
as  pleasurable  to  the  royal  libertines  as  it  was  dis- 
astrous to  themselves. 

The  Revolt  of  Wen  Wang.  At  length  the  cru- 
elties of  Chou  Hsin  exhausted  the  patience  of  the 
princes  and  the  people.  A revolt  broke  out  headed 
by  Ch‘ang,  Duke  of  Chou,  known  also  as  Si  Peh, 
“ the  Chief  of  the  West,”  and  better  still  by  the  name 
given  to  him  on  canonization,  Wen  W ang.  To  the 
assembled  troops  he  gave  the  following  singular  ad- 
vice : “ In  to-day’s  business  do  not  take  more  than 

six  or  seven  steps,  then  stop  and  dress  your  ranks. 
Heroes,  exert  yourselves ! Do  not  exceed  four,  five, 
six  or  seven  strokes,  then  stop  and  dress  your  ranks. 


THE  SHANG  DYNASTY 


39 


Exert  yourselves,  heroes ! Put  on  a terrible  look ! 
Be  like  tigers,  bears,  wolves,  and  dragons  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Sheng.”  The  tyrant  in  desperate 
straits  showed  some  last  flicker  of  courage  but  his 
army  was  put  to  flight  in  the  battle  of  “ the  ford  of 
Meng.”  Chou  Hsin  decked  himself  in  all  his  jewels, 
mounted  the  marble  tower  he  had  built  for  his  mis- 
tress in  the  notorious  pleasure  gardens  of  Luh  T‘ai 
and  there,  like  another  Zimri  or  Sardanapalus,  set 
fire  to  the  palace  and.  cast  himself  alive  into  the 
flames.  In  this  way  Chou  Hsin  put  an  end  at  once 
to  his  own  not  very  valuable  existence  and  to  the 
dynasty  which  had  begun  so  gloriously.  The  favor- 
ite, T‘a  Chi,  who  had  had  so  large  a share  in  precipi- 
tating the  disaster,  was  captured  and  beheaded.  It 
is  said  that  so  great  was  the  influence  of  the  personal 
charm  of  this  Chinese  Circe  to  the  very  last  that  no 
one  could  be  found  to  deal  the  fatal  stroke,  until  the 
aged  councilor  of  Wu  Wang,  whose  name  was  T‘ai 
Kung,  stepped  forward  and,  covering  up  his  face, 
made  himself  the  avenger  of  a nation’s  wrongs.  The 
accumulated  treasures  of  the  “ Deer  Tower  ” gar- 
dens were  distributed  by  the  conqueror  to  the  peo- 
ple from  whose  spoliation  they  had  been  acquired.4 

Ki  Tzu.  Ki  Tzu,  one  of  the  vainly  protesting 
ministers  of  the  defeated  Chou  Hsin,  deserves  to  be 
mentioned,  if  not  as  the  author  of  one  of  the  most 
important  sections  of  the  “ Shu  King,”  as  the  real 
founder  of  the  civilization  of  Korea.  He  was,  like 
Pi  Kan,  alied  to  the  Emperor  by  blood,  but,  with 
his  two  fellow  ministers,  Pi  Kan  and  Wei  Tzu,  was 
imprisoned  by  his  fatuous  kinsman  when  he  refused 
to  remain  silent  wdth  regard  to  the  fatal  folly  which 


40  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 

was  threatening  the  fall  of  the  dynasty.  The  two 
fellow-prisoners  perished,  but  Ki  Tzu  was  released 
from  prison  on  the  accession  of  the  first  Chou  sov- 
ereign. He  was  promised  rank  and  office  under  th$ 
new  dynasty,  but  his  sturdy  loyalty  to  his  first  allegi- 
ance prevailed  and  he  preferred  expatriation. 
Korea  was  the  land  to  which  he  turned.  The  legend- 
ary history  of  this  country  goes  back  as  far  as  B.  C. 
2333,  to  the  time  when  the  Son  of  the  Creator  of 
Heaven  came  down  to  a mountain  in  the  province  of 
Phyong  An.  Here  he  assumed  the  name  of  Tan 
Gun  and  reigned  on  earth  a thousand  years.  But 
it  is  Ki  Tzu’s  migration  to  Korea  and  his  conquest 
of  the  land,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Cho-sen, 
“ Land  of  the  Morning  Calm,”  which  marks  the  real 
beginning  of  Korean  history.  It  is  believed  that  he 
came  by  sea,  landed  somewhere  south  of  the  Han 
river,  and  brought  with  him  all  the  arts  of  civiliza- 
tion. He  died  B.  C.  1083  and  the  dynasty  he 
founded  had  the  good  fortune  to  survive  until  B.  C. 
193. 


/ 


NOTES 


1.  T‘ang  degraded  the  tutelary  spirit  of  the  former 
dynasty,  which  he  held  responsible  for  the  drought. 

2.  Wu  Yih  is  regarded  as  having  made  the  first 
idols  in  China.  He  introduced  them,  it  is  said,  to  show 
his  contempt  for  religion. 

3.  Chou  Hsin  was  the  first  to  use  ivory  chop-sticks. 
It  was  one  of  the  marks  of  luxury  to  which  the  down- 
fall of  his  line  was  ascribed. 

4.  T‘a  Chi  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  incarnation  of 
a she-wolf.  The  superstition  as  to  possession  by  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  wolf,  badger  and  fox,  has  been  com- 
mon in  all  periods  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  history. 


41 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 
B.  C.  1122-249 

I.  FROM  WU  WANG  TO  THE  FIVE  LEADERS 

General  character  of  the  dynasty  — Wen  Wang 
— Chou  Rung  — the  Chou  Li  — CR  eng  Wang  and 
his  successors  — Mu  Wang  — Li  Wang  — Suang 
Wang  — Yu  Wang  — P(ing  Wang. 

The  Chou  Dynasty.  The  dynasty  of  Chou  is 
the  longest  lived  of  all  the  imperial  lines  in  the  his- 
tory of  China  and  includes  the  reigns  of  thirty-five 
sovereigns,  aggregating  a total  of  nearly  nine  cen- 
turies. The  period  as  a whole  reveals  a gradual 
weakening  of  the  central  authority  by  reason  of  the 
increase  of  power  in  the  vassal  and  confederate 
states.  The  number  of  these  at  one  time  was  as 
many  as  a hundred  and  twenty-five  and  even  in  the 
time  of  Confucius  there  were  fifty-two.  Wars  con- 
tinued for  the  greater  portion  of  the  time,  against 
the  Huns  on  the  northern  frontier  and  against  the 
aboriginal  tribes  south  of  the  Yangtse  Kiang.  An 
important  feature  of  the  epoch  is  in  the  gradual 
enforcement  of  the  (so-called)  Confucian  system, 
under  a series  of  able  teachers,  philosophers  and  ad- 
ministrators. These  include  such  men  as  the  sage, 

Confucius,  himself,  and  his  great  disciple  and  inter- 

42 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


43 


preter,  Mencius.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Chou 
dynasty  there  are  some  indications  of  reaction 
against  this  system  through  the  pressure  of  forces 
such  as  were  doubtless  reinforced  by  the  infusion  of 
a strong  Tatar  element  from  the  north.  These 
forces  indeed  triumphed  for  a time  in  the  overthrow 
of  the  Chous  and  the  establishment  of  the  Ch‘in  dy- 
nasty, but  ultimately  the  foreign  elements  were  them- 
selves assimilated  to  the  Confucian  ideal. 

Wen  Wang.  B.  C.  1231—1135.  The  real  founder 
of  this  dynasty  was  the  Ch‘ang,  Duke  of  Chou,  of 
whom  we  have  already  spoken  as  heading  the  revolt 
against  Chou  Hsin.  He  had  been  hereditary  prince 
of  the  principality  of  Ch‘i  and  was  thrown  into 
prison  by  the  tyrant  as  suspect  and  dangerous.  In 
prison  he  utilized  two  years  and  attained  fame  as 
the  author  of  a work  on  the  Sixty-four  Hexagrams 
which  had  been  evolved  from  the  Eight  Trigrams  of 
Fu  Hsi.  This  treatise  together  with  the  additions 
made  through  the  filial  affection  of  his  son,  the  great 
duke  of  Chou,  constitutes  that  most  bewildering  of  all 
the  Confucian  classics  known  as  the  Yi  King , or 
“ Book  of  Changes.”  Wen  Wang’s  literary  labors 
were,  however,  no  barrier  to  his  fitness  for  military 
achievement.  Through  the  intercession  of  the  people 
who  loved  him  and  because  of  the  promise  to  get  for 
the  Emperor  a beautiful  concubine  and  some  splendid 
horses  from  the  west,  he  was  after  two  years  released 
from  prison  and  sent  west  to  fight  the  frontier  tribes. 
But  he  soon  returned  and  headed  the  revolt  against 
Chou  Hsin  with  the  result  that  has  already  been  re- 
corded. He  “ found  the  people  hanging  head  down- 
wards and  set  them  on  their  feet  ” and  was  known  to 


44  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 

all  future  times  as  Wen  Wang,  “ the  Lettered  Sov- 
ereign. ” 

Wu  Wang.  Wu  Wang,  or  Fa,  his  son,  became 
the  first  reigning  sovereign  of  the  Chou  line,  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  received  its  name  from  the  Duchy 
of  Chou  on  the  western  frontier.  He  seems  to  have 
been  a genuinely  great  monarch,  commencing  his 
rule  with  generous  actions  and  a conciliatory  atti- 
tude towards  the  conquered.  He  opened  the  prisons 
which  were  doubtless  filled  with  the  victims  of  Chou 
Hsin’s  tyranny  and  also  the  granaries  whose  con- 
tents at  this  juncture  were  badly  needed.  In  the 
proclamation  which  he  made  exposing  the  misdeeds 
of  the  late  d3Tnasty,  the  following  is  spoken  of  as  one 
of  the  crimes  of  Chou  Hsin.  “ He  has  put  men  into 
office  on  the  hereditary  principle,” — a striking  tes- 
timony to  the  essentially  democratic  character  of 
the  early  Chinese  government.  Wu  Wang  estab- 
lished his  capital  at  Singanfu,  a city  which  had  the 
honor  of  being  the  center  of  government  at  several 
subsequent  epochs,  and  was  the  natural  refuge  for 
the  Emperor  and  Empress  Dowager  during  the 
months  following  the  Boxer  revolt  of  1900.  Wu 
Wang  also  reformed  the  calendar,  created  schools 
of  various  grades,  and  made  other  memorable  im- 
provements in  methods  of  government  and  adminis- 
tration. 

Chou  Kung.  The  great  glory  of  the  reign  of 
Wu  Wang  was  the  character  and  statesmanship  of 
the  King’s  brother,  Tan,  better  known  as  Chou 
Kung,  “ the  Duke  of  Chou.”  We  may  call  him  the 
Duke  of  Chou  par  excellence , for  he  is  included  by 
Mencius  in  the  number  of  the  “ Three  Great  Sages  ” 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


45 


of  China,  of  whom  the  other  two  are  Yii,  the  patri- 
arch king  of  the  Hsia  dynasty,  and,  of  course,  Con- 
fucius. The  philosopher  adds  the  reason  for  his 
estimate  as  follows : “ In  former  times  Yii  re- 
pressed the  vast  waters  of  the  inundation  and  the 
empire  was  reduced  to  order.  Chou  Rung’s  achieve- 
ments extended  even  to  the  barbarous  tribes  of  the 
west  and  north ; he  drove  away  all  ferocious  animals ; 
and  the  people  enjoyed  repose.”  He  did  even  more 
than  his  father,  Wen  Wang,  for  the  perfecting  of 
the  “ Book  of  Changes,”  the  Yi  King , interpreting 
the  significance  of  each  line  of  the  hexagram,  as  his 
father  had  interpreted  the  general  meaning  of  the 
whole.  As  he  showed  by  this  voluntary  labor  his 
filial  love,  so  he  showed  his  fraternal  love  by  consti- 
tuting himself  the  pillar  of  Wu  Wang’s  throne.  He 
might  almost  be  regarded  as  the  most  potent  force 
in  the  permanent  organization  of  the  Chinese  admin- 
istration system.  His  zeal  was  so  great  that  he 
received  interviewers  even  whilst  he  was  having  his 
bath,  rushing  out  holding  his  wet  hair  in  his 
hand  rather  than  keep  them  waiting.  His  serious- 
ness is  illustrated  by  his  rebuke  of  the  Emperor 
for  bestowing  a certain  symbol  of  power  upon 
another  jokingly.  “ I was  only  joking,”  said  the 
prince.  “ Nay,”  replied  Chou  Rung,  “ a prince 
never  jokes.  His  words  are  written  down  as  his- 
tory, take  shape  as  ceremonial  rites,  or  are  set  to 
music  and  sung.”  His  delicacy  of  feeling  was  shown 
by  his  prayer  for  the  recovery  of  Wu  Wang  when 
the  monarch  was  dangerously  ill.  Chou  Rung’s  ap 
peal  to  the  ancestors  and  his  divination  with  the 
tortoises  were  regarded  as  the  real  cause  of  the 


46 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


King’s  recovery.  The  same  feeling  was  shown  later 
on  the  death  of  Wu  Wang  and  the  accession  of  the 
child-king,  Ch‘eng.  Chou  Rung  feared  it  might  be 
supposed  that  he  was  himself  aiming  at  the  supreme 
power,  so,  although  he  was  appointed  regent,  he 
went  voluntarily  into  exile  to  escape  suspicion  of 
self-seeking.  Fortunately  for  the  realm,  he  was  re- 
called when  certain  impending  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers made  his  presence  once  again  necessary.  To 
the  above  catalogue  of  the  great  Duke’s  achievements 
we  may  add  that  he  was  often  described  as  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Mariner’s  Compass  on  the  strength  of 
the  mention  of  a wonderful  “ south-pointing  char- 
iot ” which  he  devised  to  assist  the  return  of  the  en- 
voys from  Tongking  to  their  own  home.  The  refer- 
ence, however,  is  of  a very  doubtful  meaning. 

The  Chou  n.  Of  more  authenticity  and  even 
value,  as  an  achievement,  may  be  credited  to  Chou 
Rung  the  composition  of  the  “ Chou  li,”  or  “ Cere- 
monial of  Chou,”  a book  describing  in  detail  the 
organization  of  the  Government  at  this  epoch.  Of 
this  work  Professor  Hirth  has  written : “ As  an 

educator  of  the  nation  the  4 Chou  li  ’ has  probably 
not  its  like  among  the  literatures  of  the  world,  not 
excepting  even  the  Bible.”  Whether  in  its  present 
form  it  can  be  regarded  as  the  work  of  Chou  Rung 
is  at  least  doubtful,  but  it  may  certainly  be  consid- 
ered as  reflecting  the  spirit  of  his  administration. 

It  contains,  for  the  first  time,  the  categorical  divi- 
sion of  the  people  into  nine  classes,  in  the  following 
order:  landlords,  gardeners,  woodmen,  livestock- 
keepers,  artisans,  merchants,  housewives,  servants, 
and  those  without  fixed  professions. 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


47 


The  chief  honor  is  thereby  given  to  those  who 
cultivate  the  soil  and  the  status  of  the  merchant  is 
low,  because  he  is  a middleman,  not  a producer. 
The  “ Chou  li  ” also  describes  in  detail  the  duties  of 
the  Six  Boards  which  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  Mandarin  1 of  Heaven , with  general  su- 
pervision over  all  government,  the  regulation  of  the 
dress,  food  and  all  the  activities  of  the  Emperor. 

2.  The  Mandarin  of  Earth , responsible  for  the 
welfare  of  the  people.  Among  the  numerous  re- 
sponsibilities of  this  Board  was  a fairly  comprehen- 
sive one  with  regard  to  marriages.  It  was  supposed 
to  see  to  it  that  every  girl  was  married  by  the  time 
she  was  twenty  and  every  man  by  the  time  he  was 
thirty. 

3.  The  Mandarin  of  Spring,  in  charge  of  all  re- 
ligious rites,  and  ceremonies  associated  with  the  ob- 
servance of  the  seasons,  divinations  and  astrological 
investigations. 

4.  The  Mandarin  of  Summer,  the  Board  of  War, 
providing  detailed  instructions  for  the  raising  and 
equipment  of  troops. 

5.  The  Mandarin  of  Autumn,  the  Board  of  Jus- 
tice, regulating  all  punishments. 

6.  The  Mandarin  of  Winter,  the  Board  of  Pub- 
lic Works. 

These  six  Boards  remained  substantially  in  this 
order  of  importance  until  the  creation  of  the  Wai- 
ztru-pu,  or  Board  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  1900.  The 
Wai-wu-pu  now  takes  precedence  of  all  but  the  first. 

Ch‘eng  Wang  and  His  Successors.  Chou  Rung 
died  in  the  year  B.  C.  1105  and  was  buried,  as  he 
deserved,  with  royal  honors  and  amid  the  lamenta- 


48 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


tion  of  the  whole  nation.  The  kings  who  succeeded 
Wu  Wang  must  be  passed  over  with  but  slight  notice. 
Perhaps  we  lose  little  by  the  omissions.  Ch(eng 
Wang  selected  a new  capital,  Loyang , the  present 
city  of  Honanfu,  a city  which,  like  Singanfu,  had 
its  vicissitudes.  Cliao  Wang , B.  C.  1052-100S, 
helps  to  illustrate  the  growing  importance  of  popu- 
lar feeling.  He  drew  down  on  himself  much  ill  will 
because  of  the  heedlessness  with  which,  when  en- 
gaged in  war  or  hunting,  he  trampled  down  the  crops 
of  his  subjects.  For  this  they  revenged  themselves 
in  the  following  summary  manner:  On  the  king  re- 

quiring to  cross  a certain  river,  the  people  provided 
him  with  a boat  so  constructed  as  to  come  apart  in 
the  middle  of  the  stream.  The  king  managed  to 
swim  ashore,  but  he  died  not  very  long  after,  either 
as  a result  of  the  wetting  or  through  another  similar 
“ accident.” 

Mu  Wang,  who  succeeded  Chao  Wang  and  reigned 
from  B.  C.  1001  to  947,  deserves  mention  on  ac- 
count of  his  travels.  With  his  charioteer  Tsao-fu 
and  his  eight  marvelous  horses  he  went  “ wherever 
wheelruts  ran  and  the  hoofs  of  horses  had  trodden.” 
The  book  giving  an  account  of  these  adventures  only 
dates,  however,  from  the  second  or  third  century 
B.  C.,  so  that  there  is  considerable  room  for  doubt. 
One  interesting  visit  was  to  the  Hsi  Wang  Mu  or 
“ Royal  Lady  of  the  West.”  The  identity  of  this 
princess  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  history  and  Taoist 
writers  have  woven  around  the  story  a mass  of  mar- 
velous fairy  lore,  describing  the  Queen  as  inhabiting 
a magnificent  mountain  palace,  hard  by  which  was 
the  Lake  of  Gems  and  the  Peach  Tree  of  Immortality 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


49 


from  whose  branches  flew  azure- winged  birds  on  er- 
rands of  love.  Here  she  lived  surrounded  by  troops 
of  genii  and  by  and  by  a consort  was  found  for  her 
in  Tung  Wang  Kung,  the  Eastern  King  Lord.  Oth- 
ers have  used  their  imaginations  in  a different  direc- 
tion by  recognizing  in  the  Hsi  Wang  Mu  the  Queen 
of  Sheba ! While  still  others  have  adopted  the  pro- 
saic explanation  that  we  have  here  simply  the  name 
of  a tribe.  Mu  Wang  visited  also  44  the  land  of  mov- 
ing sands,”  and  44  the  land  of  heaped-up  feathers,” 
and  came  to  the  land  44  where  the  green  birds  cast 
their  feathers.”  2 The  geography  of  all  this  is  as 
much  a mystery  as  the  personality  of  the  Royal 
Lady  of  the  West,  but  the  pride  of  Persia  has 
claimed  the  honor  of  a visit  in  these  peregrinations. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  by  means  of  some  such  ex- 
peditions as  these  referred  to  there  was  introduced 
into  China  the  particular  philosophic  and  religious 
element  which  appears  a little  later  in  the  teaching  of 
Lao  Tzu. 

Inferior  names  succeed  to  that  of  Mu  Wang  and 
the  growing  inability  of  the  Emperors  to  manage 
their  vast  feudal  domains  becomes  increasingly  evi- 
dent. Some  of  the  statesmen,  however,  seem  to  have 
been  men  of  more  dignity  and  resource  than  their 
masters. 

Li  Wang.  B.  C.  878—842.  As  an  example  we 
may  take  the  story  of  the  Duke  of  Shau  who  was 
minister  under  Li  Wang.  Li  Wang  disliked  and  re- 
sented the  open  criticism  of  his  policy  by  the  people. 
As  a deterrent  he  ordered  all  the  suspected  slanderers 
to  be  seized  and  executed.  This  done,  criticism  was 
naturally  silent  and  the  exultant  Emperor  exclaimed 


50 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


to  his  minister,  44  Where  are  all  your  gossipers  now?  ” 
The  answer  was  as  follows : 44  All  you  have  brought 

about  is  a screen  which  prevents  you  from  learn- 
ing the  real  sentiments  of  the  people ; but  you  should 
know  that  it  is  more  dangerous  to  shut  the  people’s 
mouths  than  to  stop  the  waters  of  a river.  To  stop 
the  progress  of  a river  means  to  force  it  to  expand 
and  thus  do  more  harm  than  if  it  had  been  allowed 
to  take  its  natural  course.  Such  is  the  case  with 
your  people.  If  you  want  to  prevent  the  damage 
threatening  from  the  inundation  of  a river  you  have 
to  lead  it  into  a proper  bed  which  will  hold  all  its 
waters ; if  you  want  to  make  an  impression  on  the 
people,  let  them  have  perfect  liberty  of  speech.”  3 
Suan  Wang.  B.  C.  827-782.  Suan  Wang  fur- 
nishes another  illustration  of  the  danger  of  disre- 
garding the  popular  will  and  the  maintenance  of  gov- 
ernmental traditions.  44  There  was  a time-honored 
custom,”  says  Hirth,  44  under  the  Chou  dynasty  that 
the  Emperor  had  to  perform  the  ceremony  of  work- 
ing in  person  in  the  4 Fields  of  a Thousand  Acres  ’ 
set  aside  for  the  purpose,  a ceremony  similar  to  that 
of  the  handling  of  the  plow  by  the  Emperor  at  the 
present  day.  Suan  Wang  declined  to  comply  with 
the  practice  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  his 
dukes,  with  the  result  that  in  B.  C.  789  his  army  was 
defeated  in  a battle  against  certain  Tangutan  tribes. 
The  name  of  the  battle  field,  according  to  Ssu-ma 
Ch4ien,  was  Ch'ien  miao,  which  means  4 a thousand 
acres,’  but  it  would  appear  that  the  name  was  given 
to  the  locality  afterward  in  commemoration  of  the 
Emperor’s  disinclination  to  listen  to  his  minister’s 
remonstrations.”  Whether  due  or  not  to  the  Em- 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


51 


peror’s  crimes,  a great  drought  afflicted  the  land  at 
this  time,  and  the  “ Book  of  Odes  ” 4 gives  us  the  fol- 
lowing fine  account  of  Suan  Wang’s  expostulation 
with  Heaven. 

“ Brightly  resplendent  in  the  sky  revolved 
The  milky  way.  The  monarch  cried,  Alas ! 

What  crime  is  ours,  that  Heaven  thus  sends  on  us 
Death  and  Disorder,  that  with  blow  on  blow 
Famine  attacks  us?  Surely  I have  grudged 
To  God  no  victims;  all  our  store  is  spent 
On  tokens.  Why  is  it  I am  not  heard? 

Rages  the  drought.  The  hills  are  parched,  and  dry 
The  streams.  The  demon  of  the  drought 
Destroys  like  one  who  scatters  fiery  flames. 

Terrified  by  the  burning  heat  my  heart, 

My  mourning  heart,  seems  all  consumed  with  fire. 
The  many  dukes  and  ministers  of  the  past 
Pay  me  no  heed.  O God,  from  thy  great  heaven 
Send  me  permission  to  withdraw  myself 
Into  seclusion.  Fearful  is  the  drought. 

I hesitate,  I dread  to  go  away. 

Why  has  this  drought  been  sent  upon  my  land? 

No  cause  for  it  know  I.  Full  early  rose 

My  prayers  for  a good  year;  not  late  was  I 

In  ofTring  sacrifice  unto  the  Lords 

Of  the  Four  Quarters  and  the  land.  Afar 

In  the  high  Heaven  God  listens  not.  And  yet 

Surely  a reverent  man  as  I have  been 

To  all  intelligent  spirits  should  not  be 

The  victim  of  their  overwhelming  wrath.”  5 

What  with  physical  calamities  within  and  the  in- 
creasing troublesomeness  of  the  Huns  without,  the 
military  and  civil  capacity  of  the  rulers  of  China  at 
this  time  was  certainly  put  severely  to  the  test. 


52 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Yu  Wang.  B.  C.  781—771.  Suan  Wang  was 
succeeded  by  Yu  Wang  who  reigned  just  ten  years. 
There  is  a presentiment  of  coming  disaster  in  the 
story  of  this  effeminate  ruler  and  his  favorite,  Pao- 
ssu.  Of  mysterious  birth,6  Pao  was  ordered  slain 
when  an  infant,  but,  wrapped  in  a piece  of  matting, 
she  was  rescued  from  the  river,  put  out  to  nurse,  and 
later  presented  to  the  king  because  of  her  great 
beauty.  She  soon  displaced  the  legitimate  wife  of 
Yu  Wang  and  caused  the  banishment  of  the  heir- 
apparent.  And  now  no  folly  was  too  great  for  Yu 
Wang  to  perpetrate  in  order  to  amuse  his  mistress, 
who,  for  her  part,  found  it  by  no  means  easy  to  be 
amused.  Because  she  liked  the  swishing  sound  of 
rending  silks,  he  ordered  the  tearing  up  of  large 
numbers  of  pieces  of  the  costliest  fabrics.  The  king 
had  established  outposts  at  which  beacon-fires  could 
be  kindled  and  drums  beaten  to  give  warning  of  the 
incursions  of  the  Huns.  The  melancholy  princess 
could  not  be  induced  to  smile  until  she  was  permitted 
to  give  the  order  for  the  lighting  of  the  beacon  in 
order  that  she  might  enjoy  the  discomfiture  of  the 
feudatory  princes  when  they  responded  to  the  false 
alarm.  At  length  the  enemy  arrived  in  reality ; the 
cry  of  “Wolf”  was  given  as  usual,  but  this  time  in 
vain ; no  troops  appeared ; the  king  was  taken  pris- 
oner and  slain,  and  Pao-ssu  herself  carried  off,  to- 
gether with  much  booty.  She  is  said  to  have  com- 
mitted suicide  by  strangling  herself. 

In  the  sixth  year  of  this  reign  occurred  the  eclipse 
of  the  sun  which  gives  us  our  earliest  fixed  point  in 
Chinese  chronology,  viz:  — Aug.  29,  B.  C.  776. 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


53 


The  reference  to  the  event  is  contained  in  one  of  the 
Odes  of  the  Shi  King: 

At  the  conjunction  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  10th 
month, 

On  the  first  day  of  the  moon,  which  was  sin  man. 

The  sun  was  eclipsed,  a thing  of  very  evil  omen. 

Then  the  moon  became  small,  and  now  the  sun  be- 
came small, 

Henceforth  the  lower  people  will  be  in  very  deplor- 
able case.” 

P‘ing  Wang.  B.  C.  770-720.  P‘ing  Wang  fol- 
lowed his  father,  Yu,  and  reigned  for  the  most  part 
peacefully.  But  the  Chou  dynasty  was  now  past  its 
zenith  and  although  destined  to  brave  the  storms  of 
time  for  five  centuries  longer,  the  story  was  to  be 
one  of  anarchy,  assassination,  misrule  and  trouble. 
The  vassal  princes  became  more  and  more  powerful 
and  therewith  more  and  more  independent.  They  be- 
gan to  take  possession  of  entire  provinces  and  to 
govern  them  without  reference  to  the  decrees  of  the 
Emperors.  A good  illustration  in  point  is  that 
kingdom  of  Lu  (part  of  the  modern  province  of 
Shantung)  of  which  Confucius  has  given  the  contin- 
uous history  for  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
namely,  from  B.  C.  722  to  481.  The  history  will 
be  found  in  that  one  of  the  Confucian  Classics  known 
as  Ch'un  Tsiu  or  the  “ Spring  and  Autumn  Annals.” 


NOTES 


1.  The  word  Mandarin  comes,  in  all  probability, 
not  from  the  Portuguese  mandar,  “ to  command,”  but 
from  the  Sanscrit  mantrin,  “ counsellor,”  from  the  root 
man  “ to  think.” 

2.  The  journeys  of  Mu  Wang  are  passed  over  in 
silence  by  the  historian  Ssu-ma  Ch'ien,  but  an  account 
of  them  is  preserved  in  a book  called  Mu  Tien  Tsz 
Cliuan,  translated  by  Dr.  Eitel.  See  “ China  Review,” 
xvii,  p.  223  ff. 

3.  There  are  a great  many  stories  of  the  good  Duke 
of  Shau’s  loyalty  to  the  Emperor.  In  a rebellion  he 
sacrificed  his  own  son  in  order  to  save  the  heir-apparent. 

4.  Book  of  Odes,  Part  III,  Book  III,  Ode  4. 

5.  Chavannes  describes  the  death  of  Suan  Wang  as 
the  result  of  the  murder  of  “ le  conte  de  Tou.”  Three 
years  after,  while  the  king  was  hunting,  “ le  mort  conte 
se  dressa  sur  la  gauche  du  chemin;  il  avait  un  vetement 
et  un  bonnet  rouges  et  il  tenait  a la  main  un  arc  et  des 
fleches  rouges;  il  tira  sur  le  roi  Suen  et  l’atteignit  au 
coeur;  le  roi  eut  l’epine  dorsale  brisee  et  mourut.” 
(Note  to  translation  of  Ssu-ma  Ch'ien,  I 178). 

6.  Pao-ssu  sprang,  it  is  said,  from  the  foam  of  a 
dragon’s  mouth.  The  dragon  visited  the  royal  palace 
during  the  Hsia  Dynasty  and  left  the  foam  on  a piece 
of  stuff  which  the  terrified  attendants  held  before  them. 
This,  kept  in  a coffer,  was  transmitted  from  reign  to 
reign  till  it  was  opened  in  the  reign  of  Li  Wang.  It 
then  took  possession  of  the  body  of  a young  girl  who 
gave  birth  to  a child.  The  child,  abandoned,  was  taken 
by  a banished  man  and  his  wife  into  the  country  of  Pao, 

whence  it  received  the  name  of  Pao-ssu. 

54 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 

( Concluded ) 

B.  C.  685-249. 

II.  FROM  THE  FIVE  LEADERS  TO  THE  CH‘IN 

EPOCH 

Huan  Wang  — Duke  Huan  of  Ch‘i  — Duke  Wen 
of  Chin  — Prince  Chuang  of  Ch‘u  — the  age  of  the 
Philosophers  — Lao  Tzu  — T aoism  — Confucius  — 
the  Five  King  and  the  Four  Shu  — Mencius  — Yang 

Chu Mo  Ti  — Chmang  Tzu  — Fall  of  the  Chou 

dynasty. 

Huan  Wang.  The  grandson  of  P‘ing  Wang, 
Huan  Wang , reigned  from  B.  C.  719  to  679,  but 
“ tried  in  vain  to  assert  his  authority  among  the 
contending  states.”  The  history  of  the  next  cen- 
tury, i.e.  from  B.  C.  685  to  591,  has  been  entitled 
the  period  of  the  Five  Leaders  because  it  exhibits  the 
rise  in  succession  to  power  of  the  five  States  of  Ch‘i, 
Sung,  Chin,  Ch‘in,  Ch‘u. 

The  Five  Leaders.  The  five  great  princes  who 
represent  the  successive  periods  of  dominance  are 
as  follows : 

1.  Duke  Huan  of  Ch‘i,  B.  C.  685— 648,  whose 
fame  is  closely  bound  up  with  that  of  his  great  Prime 
Minister,  the  philosopher  Kwan  Tzu , or  Kwan 

Chung,  noteworthy  as  the  statesman-statistician  who 

55 


56 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


obtained  a revenue  for  his  master  by  the  levying  of 
taxes  upon  salt  and  iron.  The  philosophical  work 
on  government  and  legislation  ascribed  to  Kwan  Tzu 
and  called  by  his  name  is  now  generally  regarded  as 
a forgery  of  later  times.  Kwan  Tzu  deserves  men- 
tion not  only  as  an  economist  but  as  a typical  Chi- 
nese friend.  The  story  of  Kwan  Tzu  and  Pao  Shuh 
corresponds  in  China  to  the  Greek  story  of  Damon 
and  Pythias.  “ My  parents,”  said  Kwan  Tzu, 
“ gave  me  birth  but  Pao  Shuh  alone  knows  my  feel- 
ings.” 

Duke  Huan  was  for  thirty-nine  years  the  undis- 
puted leader  among  the  feudal  chiefs  and  a success- 
ful warrior  against  China’s  foreign  foes.  He  was 
evidently  a shrewd  judge  of  merit  as  is  illustrated 
in  the  sto^  of  how  he  raised  to  the  position  of  one 
of  his  chief  counselors  the  philosopher,  Ning  Tsi, 
whom  he  discovered  earning  his  bread  as  a wagoner. 
The  Duke  also  appeals  to  us  sympathetically  as  hav- 
ing sent  back  to  her  father  a favorite  wife  who  per- 
sisted in  rocking  the  boat  in  which  they  were  one  day 
amusing  themselves  on  the  Lake.  In  his  last  illness 
the  great  chief  lay  neglected  whilst  his  sons  quar- 
reled over  the  succession.  It  is  a serious  indictment 
against  the  filial  piety  of  the  time  that  the  body 
of  the  dead  ruler  lay  for  months  unburied  and  un- 
cared for  and  the  prestige  of  the  state  fell  as  rapidly 
as  it  had  risen. 

2.  Duke  Siang  of  Sung.  B.  C.  650-637. 

3.  Duke  Wen  of  Chin , B.  C.  636-628,  who  came 
to  the  rulership  of  the  State  after  he  had  declined 
to  accept  the  position  on  terms  which  appeared  to 
him  dishonorable.  “ Fugitive  as  I am,”  he  said,  “ it 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


57 


is  not  the  getting  of  the  State  which  is  precious  in 
my  sight  but  the  maintenance  of  my  benevolence  and 
my  filial  piety.”  On  his  way  through  a certain  dis- 
trict, he  was  once  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  begging 
for  food.  A churlish  fellow  offered  him  a clod  of 
earth.  The  future  duke  bowed,  accepted  the  clod 
with  the  remark,  “ It  is  Heaven’s  gift,  a gift  of  the 
soil,  a good  omen,”  1 and  took  it  along  with  him,  as 
hopefully  as  Duke  William  of  Normandy  clutched 
the  handful  of  sand  when  he  slipped  upon  the  sea 
beach  of  England.  Duke  Wen  fought  a great  bat- 
tle against  the  State  of  Ch‘u  in  B.  C.  632  and  died 
four  years  after  his  victory. 

4.  Duke  Mu  of  Ch‘m , B.  C.  659-621. 

5.  Prince  Chuang  of  CKu , B.  C.  613-591,  who 
with  success  became  audacious  and  sent  to  the  Em- 
peror an  insolent  message  asking  the  size  and  weight 
of  the  Nine  Tripods  on  which  the  security  of  the 
Empire  was  said  to  depend.  The  reply  of  the  Em- 
peror, Ting  Wang , was  not  without  its  dignity: 
“ When  virtue  is  brilliant,  the  tripods  are  heavy ; 
when  the  reverse,  they  are  light;  Heaven  blesses  in- 
telligent virtue ; on  that  its  favor  rests.  Though  the 
virtue  of  Chou  is  decayed,  the  decree  of  Heaven  is 
not  yet  changed.  The  weight  of  the  Tripods  may 
not  be  enquired  about.” 

Lao  Tzu.  The  state  of  anarchy  and  confusion 
which,  it  is  apparent,  was  prevailing  at  this  time  was 
not  without  its  relief.  Doubtless  there  were  many 
happy  interludes  of  government  in  the  various  states 
such  as,  for  instance,  the  rule  of  Tsze  Ch‘an  who 
from  B.  C.  584  to  571  ruled  the  Duchy  of  Cheng  so 
well  that  “ the  doors  were  not  locked  at  night  and 


58 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


lost  articles  were  not  picked  up  from  the  highways.” 
Moreover,  as  some  compensation  for  the  political 
infelicities  of  the  age  wTe  find  in  this  very  period  of 
disruption  or  incohesion  some  of  the  greatest  per- 
sonalities of  Chinese  history.  Of  these,  the  rst  in 
date  is  the  somewhat  shadowy  figure  of  Lao  Tzu,  the 
founder  of  Taoism.  The  name  Lao  Tzu  may  mean 
either  “ Aged  Boy,”  in  allusion  to  the  legend  of  his 
having  been  born  already  seventy  years  old  and 
with  white  hair,  or  else  “ Old  Philosopher.”  His 
personal  name  was  Li  (Plum  tree)  and  he  was  born 
about  B.  C.  604  in  the  State  of  Ch‘u  (the  present 
provinces  of  Hupeh  and  Hunan).  Almost  nothing 
is  known  of  his  life  and  some  regard  the  whole  story 
as  mythical.  He  is  said  to  have  held  an  official  po- 
sition as  Keeper  of  Archives  at  Loh  under  the  Duke 
of  Chou.  The  leading  idea  of  his  teaching  was  that 
of  the  mystic  and  quietist  and  was  so  diametrically 
opposed  to  the  orthodox  Confucianism  that  it  is  no 
wonder  foreign  origin  has  been  suspected.  There 
was  never  any  very  clear  idea  in  China  as  to  what 
the  “ Way  ” precisely  was.  According  to  Lao  Tzu 
himself,  “ Those  who  know  do  not  tell ; those  who  tell 
do  not  know.”  Confucius  says  that  he  studied  the 
Tao  for  twenty  years  and  came  no  nearer  to  the  un- 
derstanding of  it.  The  one  interview  which  legend 
ascribes  to  the  two  philosophers  is  said  to  have  re- 
sulted in  mutual  perplexity.  The  exponent  of  the 
Way  seemed  to  Confucius  to  be  “ soaring  dragon- 
like above  the  clouds  to  Heaven.”  Confucius  him- 
self was  all  for  externals,  for  rules  of  propriety  and 
the  duties  of  the  “ superior  man.”  Lao  Tzu  as- 
serted that  “ the  crow  does  not  become  black  through 


LAO  TZU 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


59 


being  painted  nor  the  pigeon  white  through  bath- 
ing.” Lao  Tzu  “ anticipated  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  returning  good  for  evil,  a sentiment  which  was 
highly  reprobated  by  the  practical  mind  of  Con- 
fucius, who  declared  that  evil  should  be  met  by  jus- 
tice.” The  classic  of  Taoism  is  known  as  the  Tao 
Te  King , or  “ Classic  of  the  Way.”  It  is  in  all  prob- 
ability the  work  of  a later  age,  perhaps  of  the  2nd 
Century  B.  C.,  but  it  is  generally  regarded  as  con- 
taining many  of  the  sayings  of  Lao  Tzu.  Such  are 
the  following: 

“ Keep  behind  and  you  shall  be  put  in  front.  Keep 
out  and  you  shall  be  put  in.” 

“ Mighty  is  he  who  conquers  himself.” 

“ He  who  is  conscious  of  being  strong  is  content  to 
be  weak.” 

“ He  wTho  is  content  has  enough.” 

“ To  the  good  I would  be  good.  To  the  not-good 
also  I would  be  good  in  order  to  make  them  good.” 

“ Recompense  injury  with  kindness.” 

“ Do  nothing  and  all  things  will  be  done.” 

“ The  weak  overcomes  the  strong;  the  soft  overcomes 
the  hard.” 

Lao  Tzu  passes  from  the  page  of  history  as  mys- 
teriously as  he  enters.  He  is  said  to  have  journeyed 
to  the  West  and  is  represented  in  Art  as  riding  on 
an  ox,  or  in  a car  drawn  by  blue  (or  black)  oxen. 
Yin  Hi,  the  keeper  of  the  gate  at  the  frontier  pass, 
warned  beforehand  in  a dream,  was  the  last  to  see 
him  and  procured  from  him  in  writing  the  philosophy 
of  the  Tao. 

Lao  Tzu’s  chief  interpreter  was  Chxcang  Tzu,2 
who  lived  two  centuries  later  and  endeavored  to 


60 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


rescue  his  master’s  name  from  oblivion.  The  period 
of  the  Ch‘in  dynasty  was  that  which  in  one  sense 
was  the  most  favorable  to  Taoism,  though  from 
another  point  of  view  it  led  to  so  much  corruption 
that  some  have  even  distinguished  between  Laoism, 
the  teaching  of  the  sage,  and  Taoism,  the  later,  and 
corrupt,  system.  During  the  Ch‘in  dynasty  the 
Emperor  was  wont  to  expound  Taoism  to  his  cour- 
tiers and  caused  those  who  yawned  to  be  executed. 
Ch‘in  Sliih  Huang  Ti,  the  “ Burner  of  the  Books,” 
was  an  ardent  Taoist  and  sent  a famous  expedition 
to  Japan  in  search  of  the  Elixir  vitce.  The  first  sov- 
ereign of  the  Han  dynasty  was  also  much  devoted  to 
this  faith  and  the  hierarchy  of  Taoist  Popes  dates 
from  about  this  time.  The  first  Pope  was  Chang 
Tao-ling  who  ascended  to  heaven  at  the  age  of  123 
from  the  Dragon  Tiger  Mountain  in  Kiangsi  on 
which  his  descendants  have  ever  since  resided.  “ He 
had  acquired  power  to  walk  among  the  stars,  to  di- 
vide mountains  and  seas,  to  command  the  wind  and 
the  thunder,  and  to  quell  demons.”  The  later  Tao- 
ism received  from  Buddhism  the  worst  of  that  sys- 
tem as  it  imparted  to  Buddhism  the  best  of  its  own. 
It  is  now  little  but  a system  of  magic  and  charla- 
tanry. The  present  “ Great  Wizard  ” or  Pope  is 
employed  to  expel  evil  spirits  from  the  houses  of  the 
wealthy.  “ All  new  gods  are  employed  by  the  Em- 
peror through  him,  and  on  the  first  day  of  every 
month  he  gives  audience  to  an  invisible  host  of  gods 
and  demigods  who  come  to  present  their  compli- 
ments.3 This  religion  was  bitterly  opposed  and  per- 
secuted at  certain  periods,  notably  by  Kublai  Khan 
in  the  13th  Century. 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


61 


Confucius.  Confucius,  “ the  sage  of  the  family 
Rung  in  the  State  of  Lu,”  was  a little  junior  to 
Lao  Tzu  and  the  representative  of  the  very  oppo- 
site, and  characteristically  Chinese,  type  of  philoso- 
phy. Many  estimates  have  been  formed  of  this  re- 
markable man,  but  most  will  agree  with  the  words  of 
Von  der  Gabelentz : “ If  we  are  to  measure  the 

greatness  of  a historic  personage,  I can  only  see  one 
standard  applicable  for  the  purpose:  the  effective- 
ness of  that  person’s  influence  according  to  its  dimen- 
sions, duration  and  intensity.  If  this  standard  be 
applied  Confucius  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  men. 
For  even  at  the  present  day,  after  the  lapse  of  more 
than  2,000  years,  the  moral,  social,  and  political  life 
of  about  one-third  of  mankind  continues  to  be  under 
the  full  influence  of  his  mind.” 

Of  course  Confucius  was,  to  a large  extent,  suc- 
cessful because  he  systematized,  practiced  and  taught 
what  was  already  accepted  as  the  Chinese  ideal.  He 
himself  disclaimed  being  an  originator : he  professed 
himself  a “ transmitter.”  Here  we  can  only  give 
the  main  facts  of  his  not  very  eventful  life.  The 
K‘ungs  of  Shantung  are  probably  the  oldest  nobility 
on  earth,  being,  in  fact,  the  only  hereditary  nobility 
in  China  other  than  royalty,  and,  strangely  enough, 
the  descendants  of  the  “ Sea  quelling  ” Duke,  the 
famous  pirate  Coxinga.  The  present  Duke  of 
K‘ung  traces  his  descent  back  seventy  generations. 
Confucius,  first  of  the  line,  was  born  B.  C.  551.  His 
father  was  a soldier,  Shu-liang,  a man  of  great  brav- 
ery and  strength,  who  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Piyang  by  holding  open  the  port-cullis  by 
main  force  of  arms.  Shu-liang  was  seventy  years 


62 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


old,  with  a family  of  nine  daughters  and  one  crippled 
son  when  he  married  the  mother  of  Confucius.  The 
birth  took  place  in  a cave  of  Mt.  Ni,  whither  the 
woman  had  gone  on  pilgrimage.  Hence  the  child’s 
name  Chung  Ni,  which  later  became  K'ung  Fu  Tzu 
(Confucius).  The  father  died  when  Confucius  was 
three  years  old  and  he  was  brought  up  by  his  mother 
till  the  age  of  seven.  He  was  early  distinguished  for 
the  gravity  and  formality  of  his  deportment,  and  a 
familiar  story  tells  of  his  playing  at  “ rules  of  pro- 
priety ” with  his  child  comrades.  At  school  he  soon 
became  a monitor  and  remained  till  the  age  of  seven- 
teen, when  he  accepted  an  under-Mandarinate,  the 
inspectorship  of  the  sale  of  grains.  This  office  he 
filled  with  such  success  that  a regular  agricultural 
school  was  the  result.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
married,  but  the  match  turned  out  unfortunately, 
and  the  wife  was  divorced  after  giving  birth  to  a 
son.  This  child  was  called  Li  (carp)  in  allusion  to 
a present  of  fish  4 received  that  day  from  the  Duke 
of  Lu.  Probablv  Confucius  was  but  a cold  father, 
as  he  had  been  a cold  husband.  A story  tells  of  the 
question  addressed  to  Li  by  a disciple  of  the  sage, 
44  Have  you  learned  any  lessons  from  your  father 
different  from  those  received  by  us?”  The  young 
man  replied  that  Confucius  had  only  addressed  to 
him  two  questions,  viz : — 44  Have  you  read  the 
Odes?”  and  44  Have  you  studied  the  Rules  of  Pro- 
priety? ” From  this  answer  the  questioner  deduced 
that  the  44  superior  man  ” always  shows  reserve  to- 
wards his  children. 

For  a time  Confucius  acted  as  Inspector  of  Fields 
and  Herds,  but  the  death  of  his  mother  necessitated 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


63 


a three  years’  period  of  retirement  which  the  sage 
consecrated  to  study,  music  and  archery.  He  then 
became  a teacher.  44  At  thirty  he  stood  firm,”  and 
soon  after  had  three  thousand  disciples  by  wThom  he 
was  deeply  reverenced.  According  to  his  own  ac- 
count, he  was  not  patient  with  stupid  scholars,  but 
expected  a pupil,  when  he  himself  had  lifted  one 
corner  of  a subject,  to  lift  up  the  other  three. 

Raised  to  the  position  of  Minister  of  Crime,  he 
brought  about  notable  reforms,  insomuch  that  it  is 
told,  as  of  the  reign  of  King  Alfred  of  England,  that 
jewels  could  be  left  upon  the  highways  and  remain 
untouched.  The  Duke  and  his  people,  however,  got 
tired  of  the  moral  severity  of  the  sage’s  influence, 
while  Confucius  himself,  not  unreasonably,  got  tired 
of  the  inconsistencies  of  the  Duke  and  his  court. 
He  felt  occasionally  as  much  out  of  place  as  Dante 
at  Verona,  a very  44  stray  dog,”  as  he  expresses  it. 
In  the  Duke’s  progresses  he  said  that  it  was  a case 
of  44  Vice  in  front  and  virtue  behind.”  Hence  he 
retired  in  despair,  seeking  a new  sphere  for  politico- 
moral  experiments  or  else  confining  himself  to  the 
instruction  of  his  disciples.  He  died,  discouraged 
at  his  apparent  lack  of  success,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
two.  44  The  great  mountain  must  crumble,  the 
strong  beam  must  break,  the  wise  man  withers  away 
like  a plant.”  He  was  buried  at  Ku-fu-liing  wrhere 
his  grave  is  visited  by  multitudes  of  pilgrims.5  Con- 
fucius was  mourned  even  by  those  who  had  despised 
his  teaching.  His  wTork  wras  carried  on  by  others, 
especially,  two  centuries  later,  by  Mencius.  After 
a brief  period  of  persecution  during  the  Ch4in 
Dynasty,  the  influence  of  Confucianism  experienced 


64 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


a remarkable  revival.  Confucius  was  made  Duke 
and  Earl  under  the  Han  Dynasty ; “ Perfect  Sage  ” 
in  the  5th  Century  A.D. ; King  {Wang)  under  the 
T‘ang  Dynasty;  Emperor  (Hwang-ti)  under  the 
Sungs ; while  the  Mings  and  Manchus  learned  to  pay 
him  reverence  under  the  title,  “ Perfect  Sage, 
Ancient  Teacher.”  This  is  not  the  place  to  describe 
in  detail  the  principles  of  his  philosophy.  The 
effect  of  it  is  seen  in  the  Chinese  people  to-day. 
The  age-long  training  in  the  Five  Relations , i.  e.  the 
proper  relation  of  Emperor  and  Subject,  Father 
and  Son,  Husband  and  Wife,  Elder  Brother  and 
Younger  Brother,  Friend  and  Friend,  assimilated 
even  the  barbarous  Mongols  and  Manchus  to  Chinese 
ideals.  Nevertheless,  the  weaknesses  of  the  system 
are  obvious,  its  externality,  its  lack  of  emotional 
power,  its  wrong  theory  of  human  nature,6  its  nar- 
row theory  of  life.  In  spite  of  all  this,  China  would 
be  grievously  lacking  in  gratitude  did  she  ever  con- 
sent to  give  up  her  reverence  for  so  pure  and  dis- 
interested a teacher  of  righteousness.  His  grand- 
son wrote  the  following  impassioned  eulogy  which 
represents  not  unfairly  the  deliberate  estimate  of 
all  educated  China : “ His  fame  overflows  the 

Middle  Kingdom  and  reaches  the  barbarians  of  north 
and  south.  Wherever  ships  and  wagons  can  go, 
or  the  strength  of  man  penetrate ; wherever  there 
is  heaven  above  and  earth  below ; wherever  the  sun 
and  moon  shed  their  light,  or  frosts  or  dews  fall, — 
all  who  have  blood  and  breath  honor  and  love  him. 
Wherefore  it  may  be  said  that  he  is  the  peer  of  God.” 
The  Confucian  Classics  should  be  mentioned 
here,  although  an  adequate  account  of  them  could 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


65 


only  find  place  in  a history  of  Chinese  literature  or 
philosophy.  Some  have  suggested  that  the  books 
which  come  under  this  head  are  all  elaborate  for- 
geries,7 but  the  general  consensus  of  scholars  is  in 
favor  of  accepting  the  genuineness  of  nine  works. 

These  are  divided  into  the  two  classes,  the  Five 
King  and  the  Four  Shu , which  have  sometimes  been 
described  as  respectively  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments of  Chinese  sacred  literature. 

The  Five  King  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  Shu  King , or  “ Book  of  History,”  consist- 
ing of  fragmentary  records  of  events  extending  from 
the  time  of  Yao  and  Shun,  B.  C.  2400,  down  to 
B.  C.  619. 

2.  The  Shi  King,  or  “ Book  of  Odes,”  a collection 
of  305  poems,  sacrificial,  lyrical  and  miscellaneous. 
Five  of  them  go  hack  to  the  time  of  the  Shang 
Dynasty,  B.  C.  1800,  wThile  the  remaining  300  belong 
to  the  times  of  the  Chou. 

3.  The  Yi  King , or  “ Book  of  Changes,”  the  elab- 
orated interpretation  of  the  Sixty-four  Hexagrams 
ascribed  to  Wen  Wang  and  the  Duke  of  Chou.  It 
is  a detailed  application,  by  means  of  the  Hexa- 
grams, of  the  old  Chinese  philosophy  of  Whole  and 
Broken  lines,  the  Yang  and  the  Yin,  the  Bright  and 
the  Dark,  the  Male  and  the  Female,  Active  and 
Passive,  Odd  and  Even,  Strong  and  Weak.8 

4.  The  Li  Ki , or  “ Book  of  Rites,”  the  “ Vade 
Mecum  ” of  “ the  superior  man,”  the  text-book  of 
the  Board  of  Rites. 

5.  Ch‘un  Ts'iu , or  “ Spring  and  Autumn  An- 
nals,” the  history  of  the  State  of  Lu  for  a period 
of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.9 


66 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


The  Four  Shu  are  these: 

1.  Lun  Yu,  or  the  44  Analects,”  consisting  of  dia- 
logues of  Confucius  with  his  disciples,  remarks  on 
government,  virtue,  etc.10 

2.  Tai  Hsiao,  or  the  44  Great  Learning,”  con- 
taining the  detailed  analysis  of  the  process  by  means 
of  which  man  becomes,  first  the  Sage,  then  the  Ruler. 
This  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  little  outline  of 
Confucian  ethics  which  has  had  extraordinary  influ- 
ence on  the  molding  of  Chinese  character. 

3.  Chung  Yung,  or  the  44  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,” 
compiled  by  Rung  Ki,  the  grandson  of  the  Sage,  of 
whose  tenets  he  was  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic 
exponents. 

4.  Mencius.  The  sayings  of  the  philosopher  of 
that  name. 

After  Confucius.  From  the  4th  Century  B.  C. 
onwards  we  have  a great  deal  of  light  thrown  upon 
Chinese  history  in  the  work  of  Ssu-ma  Kuang,  the 
historian  of  the  11th  century  A.  D.  It  has  been 
made  accessible,  so  far  as  its  material  parts  are  con- 
cerned, for  foreigners  in  the  great  work  of  Father 
de  Maille. 

The  story  told  makes  it  quite  apparent  that  the 
last  days  of  the  Chou  dynasty  were  at  this  time 
approaching  and  that  there  was  a general  weakening 
of  the  central  Government  in  its  relation  to  the  many 
contending  States,  amongst  which  the  State  of  Ch4in, 
with  its  foreign  elements  of  race  and  culture,  was 
the  most  conspicuous.  The  puppet  Emperors  of 
the  period  have  for  us  little  or  no  interest  and  may 
be  dismissed  with  scant  notice.  But,  by  way  of  com- 
pensation, there  are  three  or  four  philosophers  on 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY  67 

account  of  whom  the  period  is  not  only  interesting 
but  quite  important. 

Mencius.  First  of  all  there  is  the  great  apostle 
of  Confucianism,  Meng  K‘o,  whose  name  is  most 
familiar  to  us  in  its  Latinized  form  as  Mencius. 
He  was  the  contemporary  of  Plato,  born  in  the 
province  of  Shantung,  not  far  from  the  birthplace 
of  his  illustrious  master.  His  mother  is  the  model 
Chinese  mother,  so  solicitous  for  her  son’s  welfare 
that  she  moved  her  residence  from  time  to  time  in 
order  to  avoid  a dangerous  moral  environment. 
From  the  neighborhood  of  a cemetery  she  moved  to 
prevent  her  little  son  from  mimicking  the  mourners ; 
from  the  neighborhood  of  a slaughter  house  she 
moved  again  to  stop  him  from  imitating  the  cries 
of  the  slaughtered  animals;  from  a house  near  the 
market  to  avoid  his  acquiring  the  manners  of  the 
trading  classes ; and  so  on  until  by  design  or  chance, 
she  settled  upon  the  vicinity  of  a school.  This 
proved  so  satisfactory  on  either  side  that  no  further 
move  was  required.  “ At  a later  period,”  says 
Mayers,  “ she  destroyed  with  a knife  a web  of  cloth 
on  which  she  was  engaged  as  a practical  lesson  to  her 
son  who  showed  a disposition  to  trifle  in  his  studies.” 
The  famous  woman  was,  as  we  might  expect,  highly 
reverenced  by  Mencius  and,  when  she  died,  he  gave 
her  a most  sumptuous  funeral.  The  philosopher 
was  a great  political  economist,  and  his  teachings 
were  of  a most  democratic  character.  He  taught 
that  of  the  three  objects  of  regard,  the  gods,  the 
Emperor  and  the  people,  the  people  came  first,  the 
gods  second  and  the  Emperor  only  third.  He  de- 
fended, consequently,  the  right  of  the  people  to  rebel, 


68 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


saying:  “When  the  prince  is  guilty  of  great 

errors,  the  minister  should  reprove  him ; if,  after 
doing  so  again  and  again,  he  does  not  listen,  he 
should  dethrone  him  and  put  another  in  his  place.” 
“ He  who  gains  the  hearts  of  the  people,”  he  said 
again,  “ secures  the  throne,  and  he  who  loses  the 
people’s  heart,  loses  the  throne.”  Mencius  insist- 
ently urged  upon  rulers  the  benevolent  administra- 
tion of  their  realms.  Provided,  he  said,  taxes  were 
light  and  government  just,  the  nation  would  need  no 
army  of  mailed  warriors  but  would  be  able  to  beat 
off  their  foreign  enemies  “ with  mere  sticks  in  their 
hands.”  He  is  regarded  as  the  leading  advocate, 
if  not  the  author,  of  the  “ tsing  ” system,  whereby 
land  was  divided  into  nine  portions  by  lines  re- 
sembling the  ideograph  “ tsing  ” The  eight  out- 
side divisions  were  cultivated  by  individual  owners 
for  their  own  profit ; the  middle  portion  was  culti- 
vated jointly  for  the  benefit  of  the  State.  Mencius 
lived  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  in  retirement 
and  died  B.  C.  289  in  his  84th  year. 

Yang  Chu.  A philosopher  of  a quite  different 
type  was  Yang  Chu  or  Lieh  Tzu  (Latinized  as 
Licius).  He  is  the  Chinese  Qoheleth,  the  pessimist 
Epicurean  who  followed  his  inclination  and  sought 
happiness  in  pleasure.  Yet  he  taught  at  the 
same  time  that  life  was  not  worth  the  living  and 
that  after  death  comes  nothing.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  Epicurus,  with  whom  in  many  re- 
spects he  agrees,  was  his  contemporary.  As  was 
natural  Yang  Chu  and  Mencius  were  life-long  ad- 
versaries. 

Mo  Ti,  or  Micms , was  of  still  another  order. 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


69 


The  two  men,  says  Legge  (alluding  to  Mo  Ti  and 
Yang  Chu),  “ stood  at  opposite  poles  of  human 
thought  and  sentiment.”  Mo  Ti  is  the  altruist,  the 
teacher  of  the  principle  that  44  all  evils  arise  from 
lack  of  mutual  love.”  He  too  was  opposed  to,  and 
by,  Mencius. 

Chwang  Tzu.  At  this  time  too  lived  the  great 
interpreter  of  Taoism,  Chwang  Tzu,  who  has  al- 
ready been  alluded  to.  But  for  the  dominance  of 
Confucianism  at  this  time,  his  reputation  would 
probably  have  stood  higher  than  was  actually  the 
case.  He  plainly  reflects  in  his  writings,  which  have 
much  charm,  an  Indian  influence,  as  in  the  closing 
lines  of  his  poem  on  “ Peaceful  Old  Age .” 

“ Thus  strong  in  faith  I wait,  and  long  to  be 
One  with  the  pulsings  of  Eternity.” 

Chwang  Tzu  mingled  wit  with  his  philosophy  and 
humility  with  both.  The  following  story  is  a good 
illustration : 

44  Chwang  Tzu  was  fishing  in  the  P‘u  when  the 
Prince  of  Ch4u  sent  two  high  officials  to  ask  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  administration  of  the  Ch‘u  State. 
Chwang  Tzu  went  on  fishing,  and,  without  turning 
his  head,  said : 4 I have  heard  that  in  Ch4u  there 

is  a sacred  tortoise  which  has  been  dead  now  some 
three  thousand  years,  and  that  the  Prince  keeps  this 
tortoise  carefully  enclosed  in  a chest  on  the  altar 
of  his  ancestral  temple.  Now,  would  this  tortoise 
rather  be  dead  and  have  its  remains  venerated,  or 
be  alive  and  wagging  its  tail  in  the  mud?  ’ 

44  4 It  would  rather  be  alive,’  replied  the  two  of- 
ficials, 4 and  wagging  its  tail  in  the  mud.’ 


70 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


44  4 Begone ! 9 cried  Chwang  Tzu,  4 1 too  will  wag 
my  tail  in  the  mud.’  ” 11 

He  forbade  his  followers  to  give  his  body  burial, 
saying,  44  I will  have  Heaven  and  Earth  for  my 
sarcophagus ; the  sun  and  moon  shall  be  the  insignia 
where  I lie  in  state,  and  all  creation  shall  be  mourners 
at  my  funeral.” 

The  Story  of  Chu  Yuan.  The  corruption  of 
the  times  and  the  despair  of  good  men  is  illustrated 
by  the  story  of  the  loyal  minister,  Chu  Yuan , who 
wrote  his  allegorical  poem,  44  Falling  into  Trouble,” 
to  describe  the  search  for  a prince  who  might  be 
induced  to  give  heed  to  counsels  of  good  government. 
Driven  at  last  to  despair  by  the  successful  intrigues 
of  his  rivals,  he  went  to  the  river  to  commit  suicide. 
44  All  the  world,”  he  said,  44  is  foul  and  I am  clean.” 
44  The  true  sage,”  replied  the  fisherman,  44  does  not 
quarrel  with  his  environment.  If  the  world  is  foul 
why  not  leap  into  it  and  make  it  clean.”  But  Chu 
Yuan,  clasping  a big  stone,  leaped  instead  into  the 
river,  and  the  Dragon  Festival,  which  takes  place 
every  year  on  the  5th  day  of  the  5th  month,  is  said 
to  represent  the  search  for  his  body. 

Su  Ts4in.  From  the  middle  of  the  4th  Century 
it  was  becoming  difficult  to  hold  the  States  together 
against  the  constantly  growing  menace  of  the  King- 
dom of  Ch4in.  One  man  indeed  in  this  turbulent 
epoch  deserves  mention  for  his  efforts  to  this  end, 
namely,  the  statesman  Su  Ts'in , who  in  B.  C.  333 
actually  succeeded  in  forming  a league  of  the  six 
States  of  Yen,  Chao,  Han,  Wei,  Ch4i  and  Ch4u. 
For  a while  he  managed  the  confederation  success- 
fully, moving  from  court  to  court  to  impart  back- 


THE  CHOU  DYNASTY 


71 


bone  to  the  respective  princes.  But  internal  in- 
trigue nullified  his  efforts  and  he  was  assassinated. 
He  is  famous  as  the  author  of  the  saying:  “It  is 

better  to  be  a fowl’s  beak  than  the  hinder  part  of 
an  ox.”  After  his  death  war  broke  out  between  the 
States  and  made  the  success  of  the  Chains  certain. 
In  an  encounter  between  the  forces  of  Yen  and  those 
of  Ch‘i,  a hero  of  the  latter  state  more  than  emu- 
lated the  Biblical  story  of  Samson  and  the  foxes. 
He  collected  a host  of  oxen  tied  swords  to  their  horns 
and  bunches  of  greased  reeds  to  their  tails  and  drove 
them  against  the  enemy  who  were  routed  in  great 
confusion. 

Nan  Wang.  B.  C.  314—256.  The  last  monarch 
of  the  Chou  dynasty  was  Nan  Wangy  who  reigned 
nearly  sixty  years,  during  which  time  he  vainly  tried 
by  means  of  alliances  of  various  kinds  to  stem  the 
successful  career  of  the  State  of  Ch‘in.  Victory 
after  victory  marked  the  slow  but  sure  advance  of 
the  enemy  and  Nan  Wang  died  just  in  time  to  avoid 
witnessing  the  spectacle  of  the  once  mighty  house 
of  Chou  crumbling  into  ruins.  The  regent  whom 
he  left  in  charge  was  made  prisoner  and  the  Nine 
Tripods  of  Yii  captured. 

A short  period  of  interregnum  or  anarchy  fol- 
lowed and  then  the  destinies  of  China  passed  into 
the  keeping  of  the  short-lived  but  glorious  Dynasty 
of  Ch‘in. 


NOTES 


1.  Legge,  quoted  by  Hirth,  “ Ancient  History/’  p. 
213. 

2.  For  a good  account  of  Chwang  Tzu,  or  Chwang 
Chow,  as  he  is  sometimes  called,  see  “ Musings  of  a 
Chinese  Mystic,”  with  Introduction  by  Lionel  Giles, 
1908. 

3.  See  Brinkley’s  “ China,”  “ Propaganda  and  Re- 
ligions.” 

4.  The  Carp,  as  in  Japan,  is  the  boy’s  festival  em- 
blem. “ The  idea  is  that  as  the  carp  swims  up  the  river 
against  the  current,  so  will  the  sturdy  boy,  overcoming 
all  obstacles,  make  his  way  in  the  world,  and  rise  to 
fame  and  fortune.”  Chamberlain,  “ Things  Japanese,” 
p.  93. 

5.  For  a good  description  of  the  Temple  and  Tomb 
read  Brown’s  “ New  Forces  in  Old  China,”  pp.  65  ff. 

6.  Cf.  teaching  of  Pelagius  and  Rousseau.  The  first 
phrase  of  the  “ Three  Character  Classics  ” is  “ Man  is 
bv  nature  good.” 

7.  H.  J.  Allen,  “ Early  Chinese  History,”  1906. 

8.  Read  Introduction  to  Legge’s  Translation  of  the 
“ Yi  King  ” in  the  “ Sacred  Books  of  the  East.” 

9.  For  samples  of  this  history  see  R.  K.  Douglas, 
“ The  Literature  of  China.” 

10.  See  “ The  Sayings  of  Confucius,”  with  Intro- 
duction by  Lionel  Giles,  1908. 

11.  “Musings  of  a Chinese  Mystic,”  p.  109. 


72 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  CHTN  DYNASTY 
B.  C.  249-210. 

Chiang  Hsiang  W ang  — CJi  in  Shih  Huang  Ti  — 
the  Great  Wall — the  “ Burning  of  the  Books  ” — 
Taoist  propaganda  — the  end  of  the  dynasty. 

Chiang  Hsiang  Wang.  The  history  of  the  State 
of  Ch‘in  slides  almost  insensibly  into  that  of  the 
Imperial  Ch‘in  Dynasty.  Chao  Hsiang  Wang , who 
had  reigned  fifty-two  years  over  the  State  of  Ch‘in. 
died  and  left  the  succession  to  Hiao  Wen  Wang. 
After  a reign  of  but  three  days  this  ruler  (if  we 
venture  to  give  him  the  title)  died,  yielding  up  his 
scarcely  occupied  throne  to  Prince  1 Jen , who  took 
the  name  of  Chiang  Hsiang  Wang.  The  chief  min- 
ister of  this  sovereign  was  a former  traveling  mer- 
chant of  the  name  of  Lii  Pu-wei  who  became  known, 
first  as  literatus  and  then  as  counselor.  As  literatus 
he  had  such  confidence  in  his  own  ability  that  he 
suspended  a thousand  pieces  of  gold  at  the  gates 
of  his  house  as  a reward  to  any  person  who  could 
better  his  composition  by  the  addition  or  omission 
of  a single  word.  Such  a temptation,  hardly  to  be 
resisted  by  any  modern  critic,  apparently  fell  in  the 
way  of  no  literary  opponent.  As  minister  Lii  Pu- 
wei  betrayed  his  master’s  confidence  by  an  intrigue 

with  the  Queen  which  resulted  in  the  birth  of  the 

73 


74 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Prince  Cheng,  afterwards  the  famous  First  Em- 
peror. Chiang  banished  his  minister  but  adopted 
the  boy,  who  was  left  to  fill  the  throne,  made  vacant 
by  his  adopted  father’s  death,  at  the  age  of  thirteen. 
The  uncertainty  about  his  birth  continued  to  be  a 
stumbling  block  to  some,  and  later  on  became  a con- 
venient tool  for  his  enemies  and  detractors.  It 
makes  no  difference  to  the  real  greatness  of  44  the 
Napoleon  of  China.” 

Ch4in  Shih  Huang  Ti.  About  a generation  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  Chou  dynasty  a certain  politician 
was  advising  one  of  the  feudal  Kings  to  make  peace 
with  another  with  whom  he  was  then  engaged  in  hos- 
tilities. 44  I saw  this  morning,”  he  said,  44  on  the 
beach  a mussel  open  its  shell  to  sun  itself.  Imme- 
diately an  oyster  catcher  thrust  in  its  bill  and  as 
promptly  the  mussel  closed  its  shell  and  held  the 
bird  fast.  4 If  it  doesn’t  rain  soon,’  said  the  oyster 
catcher,  4 there  will  be  a dead  mussel.’  4 And,’  re- 
plied the  mussel,  4 if  you  don’t  get  out  of  this  soon 
there  will  be  a dead  oyster  catcher.’  Meanwhile  up 
came  a fisherman  and  caught  them  both.”  44  I 
greatly  fear,”  added  the  politician,  44  that  the  Ch4in 
state  will  be  our  fisherman.”  The  fear  proved  only 
too  well  grounded.  In  Ch‘in  Shih  Huang  Ti  China 
found  a ruler  who  had  the  Imperial  idea  beyond  any 
of  his  predecessors.  Beyond  the  doubt  as  to  the 
legitimacy  of  his  birth  there  is  something  puzzling 
about  his  racial  affinity.  The  theory  has  even  been 
ventured  that  he  was  in  some  way  connected  with 
that  Mauryan  dynasty  which  at  this  very  time  was 
ruling  in  India  in  the  person  of  A£oka.  The  latter 
was  successfully  achieving  in  India  what  Shih 


THE  CH‘IN  DYNASTY 


75 


Huang  Ti  attempted  to  accomplish  in  China,  even 
to  the  religious  revolution  which  accompanied  the 
consolidation  of  the  Empire.  It  would  be  strange 
indeed  could  we  but  accept  this  theory  as  proven, 
but  all  that  can  be  said  here  is  that  the  portrait  of 
the  first  great  Chinese  Emperor  presents  some  strik- 
ing contrasts  to  the  usual  Chinese  type.  In  any 
case,  as  we  have  said  above,  his  greatness  is  incon- 
testable, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Confucian 
literati  endeavored  to  do  for  him  by  abuse  what  the 
Brahmins  succeeded  in  doing  for  A9oka  by  ten  cen- 
turies of  silence.  They  called  him  bastard,  de- 
bauchee and  fool,  but  they  cannot  blind  us  to  the 
tremendous  importance  of  the  work  he  did. 

The  First  Emperor.  Three  special  claims  to 
distinction  must  be  conceded  to  Ch‘in  Shih  Huang 
Ti.  The  first  of  these  is  in  the  use  of  the  name 
China  as  a designation  for  the  whole  country. 
While  not  certain,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  prob- 
able, that  it  was  on  account  of  the  prestige  of  the 
first  Emperor’s  name  and  state  that  the  use  of  the 
term  China  came  about.  In  any  case,  Ch‘in  Shih 
Huang  Ti  was  the  country’s  first  real  conqueror, 
going  about  the  matter  deliberately  and  accomplish- 
ing his  aim  thoroughly.  The  two  great  generals 
whose  assistance  was  most  helpful  were  Wang  Tsien 
and  Li  Sm.  The  former  subdued  the  state  of  Chao 
in  B.  C.  229  and  was  then  ordered  to  proceed  to  the 
subjugation  of  Ch‘u.  He  demanded  an  army  of 
600,000  men  for  the  task,  but  Li  Sin,  his  rival, 
offered  to  do  it  with  only  200,000  and  was,  conse- 
quently, badly  defeated.  Wang  Tsien  then  gained 
his  point,  collected  the  largest  army  China  had  ever 


76 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


seen  and,  wearing  out  his  adversary  through  his 
Fabian  tactics,  brought  the  campaign  to  a success- 
ful conclusion  in  B.  C.  222.  By  B.  C.  221  the  Em- 
peror was  master  of  all  China  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Shih  Huang  Ti,  or  first  Emperor , proclaiming 
that  all  his  successors  should  date  their  reigns  from 
his  and  be  known  as  Second,  Third,  and  so  on,  “ even 
to  the  ten  thousandth  generation.”  Alas ! for  the 
vanity  of  human  pride! 

The  Building  of  the  Great  Wall.  This 
stupendous  rampart  was  built,  from  the  Liaotung 
Gulf  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  Province  of 
Shensi,  in  pursuance  of  the  policy  of  protecting  the 
northern  boundary  from  the  Tatars.  The  enter- 
prise necessitated  the  labors  of  tens  of  thousands 
of  men  for  many  years,  although  in  some  places  the 
work  was  limited  to  connecting  portions  of  already 
existing  walls.  The  general  in  charge  was  Meng 
Then  who,  on  the  death  of  his  master  and  the  murder 
of  his  successor,  committed  suicide.  It  is  strange 
that  to  this  famous  builder  of  the  Great  Wall  of 
China  should  be  also  assigned  the  invention  of  the 
hair  brush  used  for  writing.  Huge  as  the  work  of 
constructing  the  Great  Wall  undoubtedly  was,  it 
was  only  one  portion  of  a general  plan  for  connect- 
ing the  various  parts  of  the  Empire  with  good  roads 
and  so  making  the  defense  more  practical  than  it 
had  hitherto  been.  Indeed,  one’s  admiration  of  the 
Wall  is  even  excelled  by  the  feeling  of  wonder  at  the 
many  other  great  engineering  undertakings,  the 
piercing  of  mountains,  the  leveling  of  hills,  the 
bridging  of  rivers,  by  means  of  which  the  conquests 
of  Ch‘in  Shih  Huang  Ti  were  made  secure  and  the 


THE  CHTN  DYNASTY 


77 


imperial  unity  consolidated.  Other  notable  works 
include  the  erection  of  the  great  palace  of  A-Fong 
Rung,  near  Hienyang,  on  which  it  is  said  700,000 
criminals  and  prisoners  were  employed  at  forced 
labor.  66  The  central  hall  was  of  such  dimensions 
that  ten  thousand  persons  could  be  assembled  within 
it  and  banners  sixty  feet  in  height  might  be  unfurled 
below.’’  Another  was  the  building  of  the  many 
storied  tower  in  the  province  of  Shantung,  over- 
topping the  hills  and  commanding  an  extensive  view 
of  the  Eastern  Sea. 

The  Burning  of  the  Books.  The  real  reason 
for  the  destruction  of  the  Confucian  books  and  for 
the  persecution  of  the  literati  may  never  be  known, 
as  the  accounts  which  have  survived  contradict  one 
another.  Some  say  that  the  Confucianists  reproved 
the  Emperor  for  unfilial  conduct  in  the  banishment 
of  his  mother.  Others  assert  that  it  was  the  Em- 
peror’s ambition  to  be  known  as  the  originator  of 
all  that  was  great  in  Chinese  history  and  wanted  no 
prior  records  in  his  way.  A quite  plausible  account, 
given  by  the  historian  Ssu-ma  Ch‘ien  relates  that  a 
certain  Minister  of  learning  reproaching  the  Em- 
peror for  breaking  down  the  feudal  system,  Li  Ssu 
(known  as  the  inventor  of  the  Lesser  Seal  1 style  of 
writing)  sprang  to  the  defense  and  warmly  advo- 
cated the  destruction  of  everything  which  belonged 
to  the  past  as  a policy  which  would  stimulate  the 
progress  of  the  Empire.  We  may  well  conceive  that 
the  brilliant  conqueror  found  the  Confucian  system 
rather  too  inelastic  for  his  own  grandiose  and  im- 
perial projects  and  that  he  was  genuinely  glad  to 
find  an  excuse  for  ridding  himself  of  the  “ dead 


78 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


hand  ” of  the  great  Sage  and  of  the  precedents 
furnished  by  the  “ Model  Emperors.”  In  any  event, 
his  procedure  was  sufficiently  sweeping.  The  Con- 
fucian  Classics  (with  the  single  exception  of  the  Yi 
King)  and  all  other  literature  (with  the  exception 
of  works  on  agriculture,  medicine  and  divination) 
were  so  thoroughly  destroyed  that  when  the  Han 
dynasty  assumed  the  task  of  reviving  the  old  studies, 
copies  of  the  classics  were  with  difficulty  discovered 
in  the  walls  of  houses,  or  reintegrated  from  the 
memories  of  men.  It  is  said  that  K‘ung  Fu,  a 
descendant  of  Confucius  in  the  ninth  degree,  was 
one  who  had  preserved  hidden  in  the  walls  of  the 
ancestral  house  copies  of  the  old  books.  But,  as 
observed  above,  it  has  been  possible  in  our  own  day 
for  writers  to  deny  the  very  existence  of  the  Con- 
ifucian  classics  prior  to  the  time  of  the  historian 
Ssu-ma  Ch4ien  who  is  charged  with  having  forged 
them.  The  literati  shared  with  the  books  the  wrath 
of  the  tyrant  and  some  hundreds  of  them  (four  hun- 
dred and  sixty,  to  be  precise)  are  said  to  have  been 
put  to  death  under  circumstances  of  such  revolting 
cruelty  that  the  Emperor’s  own  eldest  son  felt  com- 
pelled to  protest.  For  this  interposition  he  was 
banished  and  all  those  who  resisted  the  surrender  of 
their  books  were  branded  and  forced  to  work  for 
four  years  on  the  Great  Wall. 

Taoist  Propaganda.  The  persecution  of  Con- 
fucianism went  hand  in  hand  with  an  ardent  ad- 
vocacy of  Taoism.  Shih  Huang  Ti’s  belief  in  this 
religion  was  perhaps  in  large  part  the  result  of  his 
desire  to  obtain  the  coveted  Elixir  Vitae,  but  a whole 
mass  of  more  or  less  interesting  fable  has  associated 


THE  CH‘IN  DYNASTY 


79 


itself  with  the  Emperor’s  devotion  to  the  cult,  now 
far  removed  from  its  first  purity.  It  is  of  this 
reign  that  the  story  is  told  of  the  Taoist  Rip  Van 
Winkle  which  bears  so  close  a resemblance  to  the 
American  version  that  it  may  be  worth  the  re-telling. 
It  concerns  the  patriarch  Wang  Cliili  who  having 
wandered  in  the  mountains  of  Ch‘ii-chou  to  gather 
firewood  entered  a grotto  in  which  some  aged  men 
were  seated  intent  upon  a game  of  chess.  He  laid 
down  his  ax  and  looked  on  at  their  game,  in  course 
of  which  one  of  the  men  handed  to  him  a thing  in 
shape  and  size  like  a date-stone,  telling  him  to  put 
it  in  his  mouth.  No  sooner  had  he  tasted  it  than 
he  became  oblivious  of  hunger  and  thirst ! After 
some  time  had  elapsed,  one  of  the  players  said : “ It 

is  long  since  you  came  here ; you  should  go  home 
now!  ” Whereupon,  Wang  Chih,  proceeding  to  pick 
up  his  ax,  found  that  its  handle  had  moldered  into 
dust.  On  repairing  to  his  home  he  found  that  cen- 
turies had  passed  since  the  time  when  he  had  left  it 
for  the  mountains  and  that  no  vestige  of  his  kinsfolk 
remained.2 

Another  Taoist  patriarch,  An  Ki-sheng,  visited 
the  Emperor  B.  C.  221  and  conversed  with  him  for 
three  days  and  three  nights.  The  result  of  the 
interview  was  the  sending  of  the  famous  expedition 
to  the  Eastern  seas. 

“ The  Isles  of  the  Blest.”  Ch‘in  Shih  Huang 
Ti  “ allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  into  the  belief 
that  in  the  Eastern  sea  there  were  golden  Islands  of 
the  Blest,  where  dwelt  genii,  whose  business  and 
delight  it  was  to  dispense  to  all  visitors  to  their 
shores  a draught  of  immortality  compounded  of  the 


80 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


fragrant  herbs  which  grew  in  profusion  around 
them.”  3 Twice  over  was  an  expedition  dispatched 
to  discover  these  “ Isles  of  the  Blest.”  Su  She  and 
Lu  Ngao,  Taoist  magicians,  were  put  in  command 
and  several  thousands  of  girls  and  young  men  ac- 
companied the  explorers.  Both  attempts,  however, 
ended  in  failure.  The  expeditions  were,  it  is  said, 
driven  back  by  contrary  winds,  though  it  is  highly 
probable  that  Japan  benefited  by  some  access  of 
population.4  So  great  a monarch  as  Shih  Huang 
Ti  may  well  have  feared  the  shadow  of  death  and 
craved  a few  more  years  in  which  to  continue  his 
work,  but  “ le  breuvage  de  l’immortalite  ” was  not 
for  him,  and  he  died  B.  C.  210.  Many  of  his  wives 
and  many  of  his  warriors,  in  accordance  with  the 
old  Scythian  custom,  were  buried  alive  near  his  tomb 
that  he,  who  had  employed  so  many  on  earth,  might 
not  want  his  servants  in  the  grave. 

The  Tomb  of  Shih  Huang  Ti.  Of  this  tomb, 
excavated  in  a mountain,  we  have  the  following 
account : “ Upon  the  floor,  which  had  a founda- 

tion of  bronze,  was  a map  of  the  Empire  with  rivers 
of  quicksilver ; the  roof  was  studded  with  the  con- 
stellations. All  around  were  mechanical  arrange- 
ments for  shooting  stones  and  arrows  immediately 
upon  the  appearance  of  any  intruders ; while  huge 
candles  of  seal’s  fat,  calculated  to  burn  for  an  in- 
definite period,  threw  their  light  upon  the  scene. 
When  the  passages  leading  to  the  chamber  had  been 
stopped  up,  and  before  the  workmen  who  knew  the 
secrets  had  come  forth,  the  great  outer  gate  was 
dropped,  and  they  were  all  buried  alive.  The  en- 


THE  CHTN  DYNASTY 


81 


trance  was  banked  up  with  earth,  and  grass  and 
plants  were  sown  to  conceal  it  from  view.”  5 

End  of  the  Dynasty.  The  close  of  the  Ch‘in 
dynasty  came  almost  simultaneously  with  the  death 
of  Ch‘in  Shih  Huang  Ti.  The  elder  and  stronger 
minded  son,  Fu  Su,  had  been  banished  as  a result  of 
his  protest  against  the  massacre  of  the  literati. 
The  younger  son,  Hu  Hai,  was  under  the  influence 
of  an  ambitious  and  masterful  eunuch,  Chao  Kao, 
who  weeded  out  the  more  independent  and  capable 
advisers  by  a device  suggestive  of  Polonius.6  He 
would  present  a stag  to  the  Emperor  and  say, 
“ Here  is  a horse.”  If  any  of  the  ministers  said  it 
was  anything  but  a horse,  their  disgrace  was  sealed. 
“ It  is  certainly  a horse,”  said  the  weak  and  com- 
plaisant ones,  and  these  remained.  It  is  no  wonder 
that  the  young  Emperor,  trained  under  such 
auspices  as  these,  proved  an  easy  victim  to  the  wiles 
of  the  unscrupulous  eunuch.  Chao  Kao,  however, 
met  his  own  fate  soon  afterwards  and  Hu  Hai’s  sem- 
blance of  power  only  lasted  three  years.  Anarchy 
followed ; even  the  wonderful  tomb  of  the  great  con- 
queror was  desecrated  and  destroyed.  The  secret 
chambers  were  rifled  and  the  fine  buildings  razed  to 
the  ground  by  the  general  Hiang  Yu.  Nothing  was 
left  but  the  coffin  and  even  this  was  shortly  after 
burned,  when  a shepherd,  seeking  a lost  sheep, 
dropped  by  accident  his  torch  in  the  cavern  and  set 
fire  to  the  dry  and  crumbling  ruins  which  had  been 
left.  “ Sic  transit  gloria  mundi 


NOTES 


1.  The  Lesser  Seal  character  was  a modification 
of  the  Great  Seal  character  which  was  so  called  be- 
cause of  its  suitability  for  engraving  on  seals.  The 
Lesser  Seal  endeavors  to  diminish  the  number  of  strokes 
and  makes  the  writing  simpler  and  more  rapid.  “ The 
change/’  says  Dr.  Edkins,  “ was  easily  accomplished 
under  an  arbitrary  and  strong  government  such  as  China 
then  had.” 

2.  “ Chinese  Reader’s  Manual/’  p.  256. 

3.  R.  K.  Douglas. 

4.  In  A.  D.  540  (says  Murdock,  History  of  Japan 
I 104)  there  were  over  7000  families  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Kawachi  who  were  known  as  the  Western  Ava. 
They  regarded  themselves  as  descendants  of  the  Ch'ins 
and  were  experts  in  sericulture. 

5.  Giles  “ Chinese  Biographical  Dictionary,”  p. 
653. 

6.  " Hamlet.  Do  you  see  that  cloud,  that’s  almost 

in  shape  of  a camel? 

Polojiius.  By  the  mass,  and  ’tis  like  a camel 
indeed. 

Ham.  Methinks,  it  is  like  a weasel. 

Pol.  It  is  backed  like  a weasel. 

Ham.  Or  like  a whale? 

Pol.  Very  like  a whale.” 

Hamlet , Act  III,  Sc.  2. 


82 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY 
B.  C.  210— A.  D.  220. 

Kao  Tsu — Lu  Hou — Wu  Ti  — Expansion  of 
the  Empire  — a description  from  Ssu-ma  Ch'ien  — 
the  revival  of  learning  — Fan  Chao  — The  Eastern 
and  Western  Han  — the  introduction  of  Buddhism 
— the  end  of  the  Dynasty. 

Kao  Tsu.  The  dynasty  of  Han  which  lasted  for 
four  centuries  and  included  the  reigns  of  thirty-two 
Emperors  was  founded  by  the  successful  soldier  of 
fortune,  Liu  Pang.  Liu  Pang  was  originally  a 
peasant  of  the  province  of  Kiangsu  who  made  him- 
self popular  among  his  fellow-villagers  by  his  good 
nature  and  courage  and  made  himself  wealthy  by 
marriage  with  the  woman  who  afterwards  became 
notorious  as  the  Empress  Lu  Hou.  Chosen  as  the 
head  of  a band  of  insurgents  Liu  Pang  gradually 
attracted  to  himself  leaders  of  influence  and  ability, 
and,  proclaiming  himself  Prince  of  Han,  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  country 
at  the  close  of  the  Ch‘in  dynasty  to  fight  his  way  to 
supreme  power.  His  principal  opponent  was  his 
fellow  general,  Hiang  Yu,  a man  of  immense  stature, 
strength  and  courage.  Victory,  however,  fell  to  the 
lot  of  Liu  Pang  and  the  Empire  recognized  the  victor 

who  forthwith  assumed  the  Yellow  Robe  under  the 

83 


84 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


title  of  Kao  Tsu.  The  reign  lasted  about  seven 
years  and  was  marked 
moderation. 

Lu  Hou.  Not  so  much  can  be  said  in  favor  of 
the  reign  which  immediately  followed.  The  widow 
of  Kao  Tsu  terrorized  the  young  prince,  her  son, 
who  succeeded  to  the  throne,  until,  at  the  end  of 
seven  years,  he  was  driven  into  sheer  imbecility  and 
died.  The  masterful  Empress  then  reigned  alone 
and  in  her  own  right  until  her  death  in  B.  C.  180. 
It  is  the  only  instance  of  a female  rule  over  China 
which  is  regarded  by  the  historians  as  possessing  a 
legitimate  title.  A more  attractive  personality  is 
that  of  Wen  Ti,  who  succeeded  the  stalwart  Em- 
press. The  moderation  and  unselfishness  of  his 
character  are  illustrated  by  the  story  that  he  aban- 
doned the  building  of  his  projected  “ Dew  Tower  ” 
when  he  learned  that  its  cost  would  be  a hundred 
bars  of  gold.  “ I will  not  spend  on  this  building,” 
he  said,  “ what  will  furnish  ten  households  with  a 
fortune.” 

Wu  Ti.  B.  C.  140-87.  The  greatest  of  the  Han 
sovereigns  was  undoubtedly  the  sixth  of  the  dynasty, 
Wu  Ti,  whose  long  reign  of  fifty-four  years  was  one 
of  the  most  splendid  in  the  whole  history  of  China. 
He  was  an  enthusiastic  patron  of  literature  and  dur- 
ing his  earlier  years  he  did  much  to  promote  the 
study  of  the  re-discovered  Confucian  classics.  His 
proclamation,  calling  for  men  of  genius  to  present 
themselves  at  court,  met  with  a prompt  response. 
Among  those  who  came  was  the  famous  Tung-fang 
So.  This  worthy  replied  to  the  imperial  invitation 
in  this  wise : “ I am  now  twenty-two  years  old ; 


by  considerable  wrisdom  and 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY 


85 


I am  9 feet  3 inches  high;  my  eyes  are  like  swinging 
pearls ; my  teeth  like  a row  of  shells.  I am  brave 
as  Meng  Pen,  prompt  as  Ch‘ing  Chi,  pure  as  Pao 
Shu-ya,  devoted  as  Wei  Sheng.  I consider  myself 
fit  to  be  an  high  officer  of  State  and  with  my  life  in 
my  hand  await  your  Majesty’s  reply.”  He  was 
received,  and  rose  to  the  office  of  Censor.  On  many 
occasions  he  kept  the  Emperor  amused  by  his  wit, 
but  on  one  occasion  drank  a potion  of  Immortality, 
brewed  by  some  Taoist  sage  for  his  Majesty’s  own 
use,  and  was  thereupon  condemned  to  death.  He 
got  out  of  the  scrape  by  exclaiming:  “If  the 

potion  was  genuine,  you  cannot  kill  me,  whereas,  if 
it  was  not,  what  harm  has  been  done?  ” Wu  Ti 
displayed  in  his  later  life  a great  devotion  to  the 
superstitions  and  magical  rites  of  Taoism  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  so-called  “ Dew- 
receiving Vase  ” in  the  belief  that  the  drinking  of 
the  dew  thus  collected  would  secure  immortality. 
His  addiction  to  Taoism  may  have  given  rise  to  the 
legends  of  the  visits  of  the  fairy  Queen,  Hsi  Wang 
Mu,  the  Queen  Mother  of  the  West,  already  referred 
to  in  connection  with  the  reign  of  Mu  Wang.  Wu 
Ti  initiated  a series  of  Imperial  pilgrimages  on  the 
most  gorgeous  scale  to  perform  sacrificial  rites  at 
the  various  mountain  shrines. 

Expansion  of  the  Empire.  Wu  Ti’s  real  fame 
rests  upon  the  remarkable  expansion  of  the  Empire 
westward  which  his  reign  witnessed.  He  found  on 
his  accession  that  the  Empire  was  seriously  threat- 
ened by  the  growing  power  of  the  Hiung-nu,  or 
Huns,  and  labored  hard  (not  without  much  success) 
to  oppose  their  advances  through  his  own  generals 


86 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


and  by  means  of  alliance  with  the  Yueh-chih,  or 
Indo-Scythians,  against  the  common  enemy.  Many 
famous  generals  come  to  the  front  in  this  memorable 
conflict,  a conflict  which  had  the  most  far-reaching 
results  both  for  Europe  and  Asia.  There  was 
Chang  K‘ien,  who  “ pierced  the  void  ” by  penetrat- 
ing to  the  extreme  west,  from  whence  he  brought 
back  not  only  the  laurels  of  victory  but  the  Persian 
grape  vine.  There  was  Li  Kuang , victorious  in  sev- 
enty battles  against  the  Huns,  who  committed  sui- 
cide after  his  last  victory,  because  the  Khan,  for 
whose  capture  he  had  pledged  his  word,  managed  to 
escape.  There  was  also  Li  Kuang-li,  who  in  B.  C. 
104  carried  his  victorious  banners  to  the  borders  of 
Persia.  Not  less  notable  again  wras  the  ambassador 
Su  Wu  who  in  B.  C.  100  was  sent  on  a mission  to 
the  Hun  chief  and  there  detained  a prisoner  for 
nineteen  years.  Compelled  to  tend  the  flocks  of  the 
Huns  in  the  deserts  around  Lake  Balkash,  he  re- 
tained all  those  years  his  rod  of  office  which  he  used 
as  a shepherd’s  staff’.  His  captivity  was  at  last 
discovered  when  a wild  goose,  with  a message  from 
the  home-sick  exile  fastened  to  its  feathers,  was  shot 
by  the  Emperor  in  his  imperial  hunting  grounds. 
Su  Wu  returned  at  last,  B.  C.  81,  a prematurely  old 
and  broken  man,  but  an  immortal  example  of  loyalty 
and  patriotic  spirit. 

Guarding  the  Frontier.  Remarkable  testi- 
mony to  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  work  of 
caring  for  the  interests  of  the  empire  in  the  western 
marches  is  afforded  by  Dr.  Aurel  Stein  in  his  recent 
book,  “ The  Ruins  of  Desert  Cathay.”  Here  we  are 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY 


87 


brought  face  to  face  with  the  wall  which  was  built 
to  exclude  China’s  most  formidable  foreign  foes. 
The  evidences  are  still  plain,  in  the  long,  straight 
furrow  which  is  still  discernible  some  twenty  feet 
from  the  line  of  the  wrall,  of  the  vigilance  with  which 
the  sentinels  fulfilled  their  duty  when  they  mounted 
guard.  The  very  stacks  of  reeds  which  were  kept 
along  the  road  to  serve  as  material  for  fire  signals 
have  been  discovered  in  the  sand,  where  for  two  mil- 
lenniums they  were  buried.  Newly  discovered  docu- 
ments give  exact  details  of  the  campaigns,  together 
with  an  account  of  all  the  provisions  made  for  trans- 
forming an  army  of  conquest  into  an  agricultural 
colony.  We  knowr  what  clothing  was  served  out  to 
the  soldiers  and  what  their  weapons  were,  down  to 
the  number  of  arrows  allowed  to  each  quiver.  We 
enter  into  all  the  intimate  circumstances  of  the  daily 
life  of  the  colony  and  can  appreciate  to  the  full  the 
old  poem  which  Dr.  Stein  quotes,  translated  by  M. 
Chavannes : 

“ Every  ten  li  a horse  starts; 

Every  five  li  a whip  is  raised  high; 

A military  order  of  the  Protector  General  of  the 
Transfrontier  regions  has  arrived 
With  news  that  the  Huns  were  besieging  Chiu  Chuan ; 
But  just  then  the  snowflakes  were  falling  on  the  hills 
Along  which  the  barrier  stretches, 

And  the  signal  fires  could  raise  no  smoke.”  1 

Ssu-ma  Ch‘ien  on  the  Han  Dynasty.  The  gen- 
eral trend  of  the  history  of  China  under  the  Han 
dynasty  has  never  been  more  vividly  and  compre- 
hensively set  forth  than  in  the  following  passage 


88 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


from  the  great  historian  of  the  period,  Ssu-ma 
Ch4ien.  The  quotation,  though  a long  one,  will 
readily  be  excused. 

44  When  the  House  of  Han  arose  the  evils  of  their 
predecessors  had  not  passed  away.  Husbands  still 
went  off  to  the  wars.  The  old  and  the  young  were 
emplo}^ed  in  transporting  food.  Production  was 
almost  at  a standstill  and  money  became  scarce.  So 
much  so  that  even  the  Son  of  Heaven  had  not  car- 
riage horses  of  the  same  color ; the  highest  civil  and 
military  authorities  rode  in  bullock-carts  and  the 
people  knew  not  where  to  lay  their  heads. 

44  At  this  period  the  Huns  were  harassing  our 
northern  frontier,  and  soldiers  were  massed  there 
in  large  bodies ; in  consequence  of  which  the  food 
became  so  scarce  that  the  authorities  offered  certain 
rank  and  titles  of  honor  to  those  wrho  could  supply 
a given  quantity  of  grain.  Later  on,  drought  en- 
sued in  the  west,  and  in  order  to  meet  necessities  of 
the  moment,  official  rank  was  again  made  a market- 
able commodity,  while  those  who  broke  the  laws  were 
allowed  to  commute  their  penalties  by  money  pay- 
ments. And  now  horses  began  to  reappear  in 
official  stables  and  in  palace  and  hall  signs  of  an 
ampler  luxury  were  visible  once  more. 

44  Thus  it  was  in  the  early  days  of  the  dynasty, 
until  some  seventy  years  after  the  accession  of  the 
House  of  Han.  The  Empire  was  then  at  peace. 
For  a long  time  there  had  been  neither  food  nor 
drought,  and  a season  of  plenty  had  ensued.  The 
public  granaries  were  well  stocked ; the  Government 
treasuries  were  full.  In  the  capital  strings  of  cash 
were  piled  in  myriads,  until  the  very  strings  rotted, 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY 


89 


and  their  tale  could  no  longer  be  told.  The  grain 
in  the  Imperial  storehouses  grew  moldy  year  by 
year.  It  burst  from  the  crammed  granaries  and  lay 
about  until  it  became  unfit  for  human  food.  The 
streets  were  thronged  with  horses  belonging  to  the 
people,  and  on  the  highways  whole  droves  were  to 
be  seen,  so  that  it  became  necessary  to  prohibit  the 
public  use  of  mares.  Village  elders  ate  meat  and 
drank  wine.  Petty  Government  clerkships  and  the 
like  lapsed  from  father  to  son ; the  higher  offices  of 
state  were  treated  as  family  heirlooms.  For  there 
had  gone  abroad  a spirit  of  self-respect  and  rever- 
ence for  the  law,  while  a sense  of  charity  and  of  duty 
towards  one’s  neighbor  kept  man  aloof  from  dis- 
grace and  shame. 

“ At  length,  under  lax  laws,  the  wealthy  began  to 
use  their  riches  for  evil  purposes  of  pride  and  self- 
aggrandizement  and  oppression  of  the  weak.  Mem- 
bers of  the  Imperial  family  received  grants  of  land, 
while  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  every  one  vied 
with  his  neighbor  in  lavishing  money  on  houses,  and 
appointments,  and  apparel,  although  beyond  the 
limit  of  his  means.  Such  is  the  everlasting  law  of 
the  sequence  of  prosperity  and  decay.”  2 

The  Revival  of  Learning.  We  have  already 
alluded  to  the  renewed  interest  in  letters  which 
marked  the  accession  of  the  Han  dynasty.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  writing  brush  or  pencil  had  been 
invented  under  the  Ch‘ins,  the  sword  in  that  period 
was  far  mightier  than  the  pen,  as  the  four  hundred 
and  sixty  literati  learned  to  their  cost.  Even  dur- 
ing the  Han  period  the  expansion  of  the  Empire 
involved,  as  we  have  seen,  the  employment  of  large 


90 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


military  forces.  But,  within  the  borders  of  China 
itself,  until  after  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era,  the  Hans  succeeded  in  keeping  the  peace.  It  is 
a fact  often  commented  upon  that  the  Chinese  Em- 
peror at  the  date  of  the  birth  of  Christ  was  P‘ing 
Ti , “ the  Emperor  of  Peace.”  Naturally,  the  first 
of  the  Hans,  the  man  who  had  hewn  his  way  to  the 
throne  with  the  sword,  was  at  first  inclined  to  the 
opposite  course.  “ I won  the  Empire  on  horse- 
back,” he  exclaimed  to  his  ministers.  “ Yes,”  they 
replied,  “ but  you  cannot  govern  it  on  horseback.” 
So  it  proved,  and  the  new  era  showed  a most  praise- 
worthy desire  to  conform  to  the  ideals  of  the  old 
literati.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Emperors 
still  patronized  Taoism,  a vigorous  search  was  made 
for  the  missing  Confucian  books,  and,  as  already 
noted,  they  were  fortunately  recovered  from  the 
walls  of  the  Confucian  family  dwelling  place  and 
from  the  memory  of  Fu  Sheng  who,  although  ninety 
years  old,  repeated  the  precious  classics  word  for 
word  to  the  officials  sent  to  consult  him.  Some 
chapters,  however,  are  said  to  have  been  lost  irre- 
coverably. At  least  when  the  Chinese  are  re- 
proached for  lack  of  knowledge  in  some  branch  of 
modern  science,  the  reply  may  be,  “ It  was  all  in  the 
lost  chapters  of  Confucius.” 

Renewed  interest  was  felt  in  almost  every  branch 
of  literature.  In  History , Ssu-ma  Ch‘ien,  “ The 
Herodotus  of  China,”  flourished  and  wrote  the 
famous  “ Historical  Records  ” from  which  we  have 
already  given  an  extract.  It  was  published  about 
B.  C.  90  from  materials  collected  by  the  author’s 
father.  From  this  work  we  derive  the  information 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY  91 

that  Wu  Ti  44  offered  rewards  of  money  and  silk  for 
well  written  copies  of  ancient  works.” 

Lexicography  was  created  at  this  time  as  a science 
by  the  scholar  Hsu  Shen,  who  compiled  the  famous 
Shuo  Wen,  a collection  of  comments  upon  and  ex- 
planations of  about  ten  thousand  Chinese  characters. 
The  work  is  of  the  very  highest  value  to  the  student 
of  ideography.  In  Poetry  also  we  have  some  no- 
table names.  The  most  interesting  to  Western  read- 
ers is  Chia  /,  who  has  been  called  the  44  Edgar  Allan 
Poe  of  China,”  because  of  the  undoubted  resemblance 
which  exists  between  his  “ White  Owl  Ode  ” and 
“ The  Raven.”  We  can  only  quote  here  the  first 
stanza,  but  the  resemblance  is  maintained  through- 
out the  poem. 

“In  dismal,  gloomy,  crumbling  halls, 

Betwixt  moss-covered,  reeking  walls. 

An  exiled  poet  lay  — 

On  his  bed  of  straw  reclining, 
Half-despairing,  half- repining  — 

When  athwart  the  window  sill, 

In  flew  a bird  of  omen  ill, 

And  seemed  inclined  to  stay.’’  3 

The  Chinese  assert  that  the  Shi  King,  or  Book 
'of  Odes,  constitutes  the  roots  of  the  Chinese  tree  of 
poetry,  that  during  the  Han  dynasty  it  burst  into 
foliage,  and  that  during  the  T4ang  dynasty  it  came 
into  full  bloom. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  value  attached  to  liter- 
ature at  this  epoch  the  case  may  be  cited  of  the 
writer  Yang  Hsiung , B.  C.-A.  D.  18,  to  whom  a 
rich  merchant  offered  100,000  cash  for  the  mere 
mention  of  his  name.  Yang  replied  that  a stag  in 


92 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


a pen  or  an  ox  in  a cage  would  be  as  much  out  of 
place  as  the  name  of  a man  who  had  nothing  but 
money  in  a true  work  of  literature. 

It  is  probable  that  the  invention  of  paper  some- 
where about  this  time  (although  possibly  earlier) 
had  a good  deal  to  do  with  the  stimulated  produc- 
tion of  books.  The  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Mar- 
quis Tsao  “ from  the  inner  bark  of  trees,  ends  of 
hemp,  old  rags,  and  fishing  nets.”  “ The  Annals  of 
the  Han  Dynasty  ” tell  us  that  the  Imperial  Library 
at  this  time  possessed  3,123  volumes  on  the  classics, 
2,705  volumes  of  philosophy,  1,318  of  poetry,  790 
on  warfare,  2,528  on  mathematics  and  868  on 
medicine.4 

Pan  Chao.  One  scholar,  among  many,  deserves 
special  mention,  since  she,  the  lady  Pan  Cliao , helps 
to  remind  us  that  not  all  famous  Chinese  women  were 
engaged  in  seducing  or  tyrannizing  over  Emperors 
and  bringing  States  to  ruin.  In  the  Chinese 
“ Biographies  of  Famous  Women  ” there  are  three 
hundred  and  ten  ladies  who  are  deemed  worthy  of 
mention.  Among  these  a high  place  belongs  to  Pan 
Chao,  literata  and  historian,  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal ornaments  of  the  age.  She  was  married  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  but  early  became  a widow.  At 
once  she  set  about  occupying  her  widowhood  use- 
fully with  historical  studies  and  literary  labors. 
Her  brother,  Pan  Ku,  was  the  Court  historiog- 
rapher, and  her  assistance  was  always  generously 
given  to  him  and  by  him  generously  acknowledged. 
Before,  however,  his  history  was  complete,  Pan  Ku 
became  involved  in  the  downfall  of  the  General  Tou 
Hsien,  and  was  cast  into  prison.  Here  he  died  of 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY 


93 


chagrin  and  it  was  then  that  the  sister  rose  nobly 
to  the  occasion.  With  the  kind  help  of  the  Em- 
peror she  set  to  work  to  revise  and  publish  her 
brother’s  writings.  The  result  was  44  The  Book  of 
Han  ” which  includes  the  history  of  twelve  Em- 
perors of  the  dynasty.  As  a reward  the  lady  Pan 
was  made  Mistress  of  Poetry,  Eloquence  and  His- 
tory for  the  Empress,  and  her  example  was  highly 
commended  to  the  ladies  of  the  Court.  A work  of 
Pan  Chao’s  own  pen  which  attained  great  celebrity 
was  the  book  entitled,  44  Lessons  for  the  Female  Sex.” 
The  Eastern  and  Western  Han.  The  history 
of  the  Han  dynasty  must  be  divided  into  two  por- 
tions. The  earlier  or  Western  Han,  as  it  is  called, 
lasted  from  B.  C.  20 6 to  A.  D.  25  and  was  mainly 
a period  of  prosperity  and  peace  at  home  and  mili- 
tary success  abroad.  It  was  in  this  period  that  the 
great  generals  carried  the  arms  of  China  into 
Western  Asia,  caused  the  banners  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  to  meet  the  banners  of  Rome  on  the  shores 
of  the  Caspian,  and  made  a way  for  the  merchants 
of  China  to  carry  their  silk  and  iron  into  the  markets 
of  Europe.  The  Western  Han  had  their  capital 
in  the  city  of  Changan.  The  Later  or  Eastern 
Hans  removed  the  capital  to  Loyang  and  main- 
tained their  sway  from  A.  D.  25  to  A.  D.  220.  The 
first  ruler  of  the  line,  Liu  Hsm,  made  himself  pop- 
ular in  a time  of  famine  by  selling  corn  to  the  people 
at  a cheap  rate.  Then,  taking  up  arms  against  his 
Emperor,  he  fought  a series  of  bloody  battles  and 
ascended  the  throne  under  the  title  of  Kuang  Wu 
Ti.  The  period  is  mainly  one  of  unrest  and  de- 
cadence, although  it  includes  the  life  of  Yang  Chen, 


94 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


“ The  Confucius  of  the  West,”  famous  for  the  re- 
sponse made  to  those  who  tempted  him  to  obtain 
wealth  by  fraud.  They  told  him  that  no  one  would 
know  of  it,  to  which  he  answered,  “ Heaven  knows 
it,  Earth  knows  it,  you  know  it,  I know  it;  how  say 
you  then  that  no  one  will  know  it?  ” Mention  also 
should  be  made  of  that  sturdy  old  warrior,  Ma  Yuan, 
known  as  the  “ Generalissimo  Queller  of  the  Waves,” 
who  from  his  youth  up  was  a faithful  defender  of  the 
national  honor  on  the  northern  frontier.  He  rode 
erect  in  his  saddle  to  the  last,  and  died  at  an  ad- 
vanced age  in  the  field  against  the  barbarian  tribes 
of  Hunan.  “ It  is  more  meet,”  he  said,  “ that  a 
commander  be  brought  to  his  home  as  a corpse 
wrapped  in  his  horse’s  hide  than  that  he  should  die 
in  his  bed  surrounded  by  boys  and  girls.” 

Introduction  of  Buddhism.  The  most  impor- 
tant event  in  the  history  of  the  Empire  of  the  East- 
ern Hans  is  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  about 
A.  D.  67.  Traditions  exist  of  an  earlier  acquaint- 
ance in  China  with  the  religion  of  Gautama.  One 
story  speaks  of  the  coming  in  B.  C.  217  of  an  Indian 
priest,  who  is  called  Li  Fang,  with  seventeen  com- 
panions. Another  tells  us  that  one  of  the  Han 
generals,  Ho  Ch‘ii-ping,  after  gaining  brilliant  vic- 
tories in  Turkestan,  about  B.  C.  123,  brought  back 
as  a trophy  a golden  image  which  has  been  supposed 
an  image  of  a Buddha.  The  commonly  accepted 
account,  however,  connects  the  first  proclamation  of 
the  Indian  faith  writh  the  second  Eastern  Han  Em- 
peror, Ming  Ti  (Liu  Chuang),  wrho  reigned  from 
A.  D.  58  to  76.  This  king  had  a dream  in  which  he 
saw  a golden  image  standing  in  the  palace  court 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY 


95 


yard  with  two  arrows  in  its  right  hand.  The  dream, 
interpreted  by  his  brother,  was  understood  to  refer 
to  a great  ruler  in  the  West.  Possibly  the  inter- 
preter had  already  heard  of  the  great  victories 
gained  by  Buddhism  in  Central  Asia  and  connected 
the  two  arrows  with  the  ideograph  for  Fu  5 — the 
Chinese  name  for  Buddha.  Ming  Ti  at  once  sent 
his  emissaries,  eighteen  in  number,  to  learn  about  the 
faith  of  Sakya  Muni.  They  returned  in  A.  D.  67, 
accompanied  by  two  Indian  teachers,  Kashiapma- 
danga  and  Gobharana,  who  brought  with  them  the 
books  and  images  necessary  for  the  propagation  of 
the  newr  religion.  A temple  wras  built  within  the 
wralls  of  the  capital,  Loyang  (the  present  Honanfu), 
and  in  this  way  Buddhism  obtained  its  footing  in  the 
Celestial  Empire.6 

For  some  time  progress  was  very  slow,  but  from 
the  fourth  century  onward  (if  we  may  be  allowed  so 
far  to  anticipate)  the  Chinese  were  permitted  to  take 
vows  as  monks,  and  some  of  these  monks  became  fa- 
mous as  travelers  and  scholars.7  Of  these  we  shall 
speak  in  due  course. 

The  End  of  the  Dynasty.  The  last  years  of 
the  Eastern  Han  dynasty  were  years  of  almost  un- 
intermittent  turbulence.  The  commander  of  the 
forces,  Tung  Cho,  was  summoned  to  the  capital  by 
the  Empress’  brother,  Ho  Tsin,  in  order  to  deliver 
the  young  Emperor  out  of  the  control  of  the  palace 
eunuchs.  He  arrived  at  Loyang  only  to  find  Ho 
Tsin  murdered  and  at  once  set  himself  to  gain  the 
supreme  control.  The  eunuch  faction  was  overcome, 
the  Emperor  and  his  brother  seized,  and  the  latter, 
under  the  name  of  Hsien  Ti , wras  chosen  as  the  pup- 


96 


OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


pet  to  occupy  the  throne.  From  this  moment  Tung 
Cho  displayed  an  almost  unexampled  ferocity  of  tem- 
per. Among  other  acts  of  tyranny,  he  deported 
the  whole  population  of  Loyang  to  the  older  capital 
of  Changan,  and  burned  the  whole  of  the  deserted 
buildings  over  an  area  of  fifty  square  miles.  Neme- 
sis overtook  him  in  the  form  of  a conspiracy  which 
led  to  his  assassination  in  A.  D.  192. 

The  most  prominent  figure  in  this  conspiracy  was 
Ts'ao  Ts‘ao,  a soldier  of  obscure  origin  who,  imme- 
diately after  Tung  Cho’s  death,  seized  and  impris- 
oned the  boy  Emperor  and  assumed  royal  power  un- 
der the  title  of  the  Duke  of  Wei. 

Meanwhile  his  pretensions  to  power  were  most  en- 
ergetically opposed  by  another  famous  soldier  of  the 
time,  Lm  Pei , a man  who  had  risen  from  the  position 
of  a seller  of  strawT  mats  and  sandals  and  was  now 
loyally  supported  by  two  warrior  brothers  and  a sa- 
gacious statesman.  The  statesman  was  Chu-ko 
Liang , who  has,  in  explanation  of  the  celerity  of  his 
movements,  been  credited  with  anticipating  certain 
modern  inventions,  through  the  mention  of  “ oxen  of 
wood  and  mechanical  horses.”  Some,  however,  sup- 
pose that  these  magical  machines  were  nothing  but 
— wheelbarrows  ! The  two  brothers  were  Chang  Fei 
and  Kuan  Yii.  The  latter  is  now  better  known  as 
Kuan  Tiy  the  Chinese  God  of  War.  He  was  in  early 
life  a seller  of  bean  curd,  and  obtained  deification 
on  account  of  his  bravery.  Beheaded  in  A.  D.  219, 
he  was  canonized  under  the  Sungs  in  A.  D.  1128  and 
was  made  a god  under  the  Mings  in  A.  D.  1594.  By 
the  help  of  such  auxiliaries  Liu  Pei  established  him- 
self as  ruler  in  the  present  province  of  Szechwan 


THE  HAN  DYNASTY 


97 


and  founded  a short-lived  dynasty  known  as  the; 
Minor  Han  or  Shu  Han.  But  it  is  time  to  take  leave 
of  the  Hans  and  glance  over  the  period  of  anarchy 
to  which  this  (on  the  whole)  brilliant  dynasty  gave 
place. 


NOTES 


1.  See  Stein,  “Ruins  of  Desert  Cathay/’’  1912.  I 
387,  II  108,  111,  149,  153. 

2.  Giles,  “ History  of  Chinese  Literature,”  pp. 
104-5. 

3.  For  whole  poem  see  Dr.  W.  P.  Martin. 

4.  R.  K.  Douglas,  “ The  Literature  of  China,”  p. 
82. 

5.  The  Ideograph  Fu  is  composed  of  the  symbols 
for  “ man  ” and  “ a bow  with  two  arrows.”  Another 
legend  speaks  of  gorgeous  and  resplendent  colors  in  the 
western  sky  evening  after  evening  until  the  expectant 
King  and  people  concluded  it  was  Heaven’s  hand  of 
glory  beckoning  to  the  west. 

6.  For  a very  trustworthy  account  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  Buddhism  into  China  read  Hackmann,  “Buddhism 
as  a Religion,”  pp.  77  IF. 

7.  See  Beal,  “ Buddhist  Records  of  the  Western 
World.” 


98 


CHAPTER  XI 


FOUR  CENTURIES  OF  ANARCHY 
A.  D.  220-618. 

The  three  Kingdoms  — the  Western  Tsin — the 
Northern  Sung  — the  dynasty  of  Ch‘i — the  dy- 
nasty of  Sui  — the  invasion  of  Korea  — the  litera- 
ture of  the  period  — the  Buddhist  pilgrims. 

The  Three  Kingdoms.  For  nearly  four  centu- 

%* 

ries  after  the  downfall  of  the  Han  dynasty  we  have 
an  illustration  of  the  proverb,  “ For  the  iniquities 
of  a land  many  are  the  princes  thereof.”  So  rapid 
are  the  changes  of  royal  line  during  this  period  that 
we  are  justified  in  applying  to  it  the  word  “ an- 
archy.” For  a few  years,  from  A.  D.  220  to  280, 
China  was  practically  divided  into  three  independent 
kingdoms.  There  was  that  of  the  Wei,  founded  by 
Ts‘ao  Ts‘ao,  in  the  north;  the  Shu  Han,  founded  by 
Liu  Pei,  in  the  province  of  Szechwan,  and  the  Wu  in 
the  south.  The  Wei  dominion  was  further  broken 
up  into  the  Northern,  Western,  and  Eastern  Wei. 
Of  the  time  of  the  Three  Kingdoms  there  is  little  that 
seems  worth  recording,  though,  in  passing,  one  may 
pay  a tribute  of  admiration  for  the  shrewdness  of 
one  of  the  rulers  who  “ proclaimed  that  in  all  future 
cases  of  litigation  the  decision  should  be  referred  to 
the  ordeal  of  archery.”  In  this  way  he  produced 

a nation  of  bowmen  who  gave  a good  account  of 

99 


100  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


themselves  in  a conflict  with  the  state  of  Tsin.  Of 
one  of  the  last  of  the  series,  too,  a delightful  story 
is  told  of  how  he  lured  on  his  exhausted  and  thirsty 
soldiers  in  a certain  campaign  by  assuring  them  of 
the  nearness  of  an  orchard  of  ripe  plums.  The 
thought  of  ripe  plums  made  their  mouths  water  to 
such  an  extent  that  they  were  no  longer  thirsty  and 
were  saved  through  the  deception.1 

The  remainder  of  the  period  may  be  dealt  with  in 
the  brief  story  of  the  dynasties  now  to  be  described, 
although  there  is  a certain  amount  of  inevitable  over- 
lapping. 

Western  Tsin.  A.  D.  265-428.  The  Western 
Tsin  dynasty  includes  fifteen  Emperors,  some  of 
whom  were  respectable,  and  one  of  them,  Wu  Ti  (a 
very  common  appellation  signifying  Conqueror),  a 
ruler  of  promise.2  He  reigned  from  A.  D.  265  to 
290  and  is  said  to  have  received  an  embassy  from 
Theodosius,  brother  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Herac- 
lius.  However,  after  he  had  established  himself 
upon  the  throne,  Wu  Ti  became  careless  and  luxuri- 
ous, and  is  described  as  spending  much  of  his  time 
with  troups  of  women  in  the  palace  gardens  riding 
on  little  cars  drawn  by  sheep.3  The  times  were  evi- 
dently very  unsettled,  and  at  one  time  there  were  as 
many  as  eighteen  little  sovereigns  disputing  among 
themselves  for  the  high  prize  of  imperial  dignity. 
The  annalist  whites  hopelessly  that  “ children  of  con- 
cubines, priests,  old  women  and  nurses  administered 
the  government.” 

It  was  under  these  conditions  that  an  attempt 
was  made  to  establish  a new  religion,  the  cult  of  the 
Void  and  Nothingness,  a species  of  Stoicism  designed, 


FOUR  CENTURIES  OF  ANARCHY  101 


so  it  is  said,  to  strengthen  the  soul  for  the  bearing 
of  adversity,  and  to  promote  contempt  for  the  honor 
and  possessions  of  the  world. 

The  Northern  Sung.  A.  D.  420—479.  The 
Sung  of  the  North  contributed  nine  Emperors,  of 
whom  the  first,  Liu  Yii,  was  another  ex-seller  of  straw 
sandals.  The  dynasty  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  great  Sung  dynasty  of  later  times.  There  was 
nothing  great  about  this  particular  line  and  all  that 
need  here  be  said  is  that  these  nine  Emperors  en- 
joyed but  a barren  honor,  compassed  as  they  were 
with  trouble,  rebellion  and  fear  of  assassination. 

The  Ch‘i  Dynasty.  A.  D.  479-502.  The  Ch‘i 
dynasty  includes  the  reigns  of  five  sovereigns  who 
altogether  retained  their  small  semblance  of  power 
for  just  twenty-three  years.  Of  one  of  these  the  fol- 
lowing story  is  told : He  was  very  fond  of  the  chase 

and,  riding  one  day  through  a fine  field  of  wheat,  he 
expressed  his  pleasure  at  the  sight.  Thereupon,  one 
of  his  friends  replied,  “ You  are  right,  but  do  you 
know  the  pains  it  has  cost?  If  you  reflected  that 
this  field  is  watered  by  the  sweat  of  the  people,  I am 
very  sure  that  you  would  not  be  so  heedless  in  pass- 
ing through  with  your  hunting  parties.”  The  king 
at  once  saw  the  force  of  the  reproof  and  forthwith 
abandoned  the  pleasures  of  the  chase  for  the  more 
human  asceticisms  of  Buddhism.  Another  Emperor 
of  the  same  line  is  said  to  have  been  so  studious 
that  he  was  never  seen  without  a book  in  his  hand, 
even  when  engaged  in  hunting.  Perhaps  it  was  this 
ill-timed  devotion  to  learning  which  contributed  to 
the  downfall  of  the  dynasty.  The  last  of  this  line 
had  a concubine  who  is  said  to  be  responsible  for  the 


102  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


atrocity  of  foot  binding.  44  Every  footstep  makes  a 
lily  grow,”  exclaimed  the  fond  husband  as  he  gazed 
adoringly  upon  the  diminutive  feet  of  P4an  Fei.4 

The  Liang  Dynasty.  A.  D.  502-557.  The 
founder  of  this  line  of  short-lived  fame,  a line  which 
includes  the  stories  of  but  four  Emperors,  believed 
that  all  the  misfortunes  of  the  realm  were  due  to  the 
spread  of  foreign  religions,  such  as  Taoism  and  Bud- 
dhism, and  to  the  neglect  of  the  precepts  of  Confu- 
cius. To  redress  the  balance  he  established  schools 
and  colleges  everywhere  at  which  lectures  might  be 
delivered  on  the  life  and  teachings  of  China’s  sage, 
and  reverence  paid  to  his  name.  Before  the  end  of 
his  reign,  however,  the  king  underwent  a complete 
change  of  heart  and  became  so  entirely  devoted  to 
Buddhism  that,  after  twenty-six  years  of  rule,  he  re- 
signed the  throne  to  become  a monk.  The  change 
was  due,  it  is  said,  to  the  great  development  at  this 
particular  time  of  intercourse  with  India.  Many 
vessels  plied  between  the  coasts  of  China  and  the 
ports  of  India  and  Ceylon ; ambassadors  arrived  fre- 
quently from  the  various  kings  of  Hindustan,  and 
wandering  monks  visited  the  Western  kingdoms 
bringing  back  pictures,  images  and  books  of  devo- 
tion. It  was  this  king  who,  perhaps  for  the  first 
time  in  history,  abolished  the  penalty  of  capital  pun- 
ishment. Historians  differ  as  to  the  effect  produced 
by  this  unusual  leniency. 

That  there  were  many  exceptions  to  the  rule  of 
general  depravity,  which  the  external  fortunes  of 
the  Empire  tend  to  emphasize,  is  evident  from  some 
of  the  stories  told  of  individuals  in  this  period.  For 
example,  there  is  the  tale  of  the  minister  wrho  com- 


FOUR  CENTURIES  OF  ANARCHY  103 


mitted  suicide  by  starving  himself  rather  than  break 
the  oath  of  allegiance  he  had  sworn  to  the  preceding 
dynasty.  There  is  also  the  story  of  a young  man 
who  gave  himself  up  to  be  executed  in  the  room  of  his 
father,  a magistrate  who  had  been  condemned  on  ac- 
count of  certain  crimes  which  had  been  committed 
within  his  jurisdiction.  The  dynasty  went  down  to 
defeat  like  the  rest,  and  we  have  the  spectacle  pre- 
sented to  us  of  the  defeated  monarch  mounting  a 
white  horse,  after  the  capture  of  his  capital,  and 
riding  forth  to  give  himself  up  to  a cruel  death  at 
the  hands  of  the  victor. 

The  Sui  Dynasty.  A.  D.  581-618.  The  reigns 
of  three  sovereigns  make  up  the  story  of  the  Sui  dy- 
nasty. The  founder  was  Yang  Chien  who  took  the 
throne  name  of  Wen  Ti,  or  Lettered  Emperor  (a 
designation  only  less  common  than  that  of  Wu  Ti,  or 
conqueror).  His  son,  Yang  Kuang,  was  evidently 
a ruler  of  more  than  the  ordinary  vigor,  though  of 
execrable  private  character.  He  is  said  to  have 
adorned  the  trees  in  his  park  in  winter  time  with 
silken  leaves  and  flowers,  and  to  have  well-nigh  ex- 
terminated the  birds  to  provide  down  for  his  cush- 
ions. To  greater  purpose  he  labored  at  the  con- 
struction of  canals  connecting  China’s  great  river 
systems,  the  present  Grand  Canal.  The  cruelty 
with  which  he  pressed  even  women  into  his  service  as 
laborers  in  this  undertaking  goes  far  towards  cancel- 
ing any  credit  he  may  thereby  have  won  as  a public 
benefactor.  He  reigned  sixteen  years  and  succeeded 
in  bringing  some  degree  of  order  out  of  chaos.  He 
promulgated  a new  law  code  and  attempted  to  strat- 
ify society  in  four  castes,  somewhat  after  the  Indian 


104  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


manner.  If  not  personally  worthy  of  the  literary 
title,  Wen  Ti,  he  evidently  appreciated  literature  and 
encouraged  learning  and  the  formation  of  libraries, 
though  he  sought  to  diminish  the  number  of  small 
and  inefficient  colleges  in  favor  of  the  large  and  more 
important  establishments  of  the  capital  cities.  He 
set  a hundred  scholars  to  work  upon  an  edition  of 
the  classics,  and  was  the  first  to  appoint  the  examina- 
tion for  the  degree  known  as  chin  shih.  His  military 
exploits  include  expeditions  against  the  Turks  and 
invasions  of  Korea  and  Tongking  which  are  regarded 
as  successful  or  unsuccessful  according  to  the  point 
of  view.  He  undoubtedly  brought  back  much  treas- 
ure, but  the  struggle  with  Korea,  whatever  Chinese 
accounts  may  say  on  the  subject,  ended  in  the  tri- 
umph of  the  weaker  combatant.  In  A.  D.  598  China 
had  sent,  it  is  said,  300,000  men  to  conquer  Korea, 
but  failed.  Yang  renewed  the  attempt  in  compaigns 
which  lasted  from  A.  D.  611  to  614.  The  accounts 
state  that  an  army  of  over  a million  men,  in  twenty- 
four  divisions,  was  employed,  as  well  as  a consider- 
able naval  force.  The  invasion  was  once  again  un- 
successful, partly  because  of  the  breaking  out  of  re- 
bellions in  China  itself.  In  A.  D.  617  there  were  as 
many  as  seven  usurpers  at  various  points  and  in  the 
following  year  Yang  was  assassinated.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  grandson,  the  young  prince  T‘ung,  who 
soon  afterward  fell  a victim  to  the  ambition  of  his 
chief  minister,  Wang  Shih-ch‘ung,  by  whom  he  was 
poisoned.  The  pathetic  story  is  told  that,  when  the 
boy  was  about  to  drink  the  fatal  potion,  he  prayed 
to  the  Buddha  that  he  might  never  be  reborn  an 
Emperor.  After  this  tragedy  the  troubled  period 


FOUR  CENTURIES  OF  ANARCHY  105 


comes  to  an  end,  giving  place  to  the  glorious  dynasty 
of  T‘ang. 

Literature  of  the  Period.  Literature  during 
these  wild  and  turbulent  centuries  was  not  without 
its  great  names.  These  appear  chiefly  under  the 
category  of  poetry,  but  the  poets  of  the  time  were  in 
many  respects  all  too  like  the  time  itself.  In  the 
earlier  part  of  the  epoch  there  were  the  “ Seven 
Scholars  of  the  Chien  An”  to  whom  must  be  added 
a bard  who  was  also  a Minister  and  a rather  impor- 
tant figure  in  the  history  of  his  age.  On  one  occa- 
sion he  is  said  to  have  condemned  himself  to  death 
for  having  permitted  his  horse  to  ride  into  a field  of 
grain,  but  he  satisfied  his  sense  of  justice,  with  but 
little  inconvenience  to  himself,  by  having  his  hair  cut 
off  instead  of  his  head.  In  the  3rd  Century  A.  D.  we 
have  another  bibulous  and  epicurean  circle  known  as 
the  “ Seven  Sages  of  the  Bamboo  Grove.”  One  of 
these  desired  always  to  be  accompanied  by  a servant 
with  a bottle  of  wine  and  followed  by  another  servant 
with  a spade  to  bury  him  where  he  fell.  Perhaps  the 
average  poet  of  the  time  was  not  unlike  the  one  de- 
scribed in  the  lines  of  T4ao  Ch‘ien: 

“ A scholar  lives  on  yonder  hill, 

His  clothes  are  rarely  whole  to  view, 

Nine  times  a month  he  eats  his  fill, 

Once  in  ten  years  his  hat  is  new. 

A wretched  lot!  and  yet  the  while 
He  ever  wears  a sunny  smile.” 

The  Buddhist  Pilgrims.  A pleasant  contrast  to 
the  all-too  monotonous  tale  of  insurrection  and 
bloodshed  is  afforded  by  the  story  of  the  Buddhist 
pilgrims  who  left  China  during  these  centuries  to 


106  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


visit  the  Holy  Land  of  Buddhism  and  to  bring  back 
from  thence  sutras,  images  and  pictures.  Three  of 
these  pilgrims  stand  out  conspicuously  not  less  for 
the  charm  of  their  personality  than  for  the  splendid 
heroism  of  their  journeys  and  for  the  literary  value 
of  the  works  they  left  behind.  To  Fa  Hsien , who 
left  China  in  A.  D.  399  and  traveled  for  fifteen  years 
through  Central  Asia,  India  and  Ceylon,  returning 
by  way  of  Java,  we  owe  the  discovery  of  the  birth- 
place of  Gautama  near  Kapilavastu  and  more  than 
one  other  important  identification  made  in  recent 
years.  Moreover,  we  owe  to  him  the  knowledge  of 
a noble  and  grandly  simple  soul.  “ That  I encoun- 
tered danger,”  he  says,  “ and  trod  the  most  perilous 
places,  without  thinking  of,  or  sparing  myself,  was 
because  I had  a definite  aim,  and  thought  of  nothing 
but  to  do  my  best  in  my  simplicity  and  straightfor- 
wardness. Thus  it  was  that  I exposed  my  life  where 
death  seemed  inevitable,  if  I might  accomplish  but  a 
ten  thousandth  part  of  what  I hoped.”  5 Sung , 
whose  date  is  A.  D.  518,  is  perhaps  less  familiar 
to  us  and  less  intimately  revealed.  But  Hiouen 
Tsang  is  another  whose  character  and  exploits 
arouse  enthusiasm,  while  historians,  archaeologists 
and  geographers  of  to-day  benefit  by  his  singular 
and  painstaking  accuracy.  He  falls  really  in  the 
beginning  of  the  T‘ang  period  — his  date  is  A.  D. 
629  — but  he  is  most  conveniently  referred  to  here. 
As  the  patron  saint  of  Dr.  Aurel  Stein,  Hiouen 
Tsang  has  recently  rendered  distinguished  service 
to  Oriental  knowledge  by  making  possible  the  trans- 
fer of  the  treasures  of  the  “ Cave  of  a thousand 
Buddhas  ” to  the  British  Museum.  One  other  pil- 


FOUR  CENTURIES  OF  ANARCHY  107 


grim  should  here  be  mentioned,  though  not  a China- 
man. This  was  the  great  Bodhidharma,  the  twenty- 
eighth  successor  of  Gautama  and  the  first  of  the 
Buddhist  patriarchs  to  come  from  India  to  China. 
He  arrived  in  China  A.  D.  526  and  henceforth  China 
became  the  seat  of  the  Buddhist  patriarchate.  Bod- 
hidharma is  the  center  of  many  fabulous  stories, 
such  as  that  which  represents  the  tea  plant  as 
springing  from  the  eyelids  he  cut  off  to  keep  himself 
awake,  but  he  is  quite  important  historically  as  the 
founder  of  one  of  the  great  sects  of  Northern  Bud- 
dhism which  have  remained  alive  and  powerful  to  the 
present  day  in  China  and  Japan.6 


NOTES 


1.  The  romantic  period  of  the  “ Three  Kingdoms  ” 
is  described  in  the  famous  novel  of  that  name.  The 
stories  were  no  doubt  in  wide  circulation  long  before 
they  were  written  down.  Murdoch  says  that  the  novel 
had  even  greater  effect  in  Japan  than  in  China.  It 
became  the  favorite  reading  of  the  samurai  and  helped 
to  mold  the  ideas  of  bushido. 

2.  This  Wu  Ti’s  proper  name  was  Ssu-ma  Yen.  In 
spite  of  his  name  he  allowed  the  army  to  run  down  and 
laid  the  Empire  open  to  attacks  by  the  Turkish  tribes. 
Prior  to  his  decline,  however,  he  was  a lover  of  literature 
and  collected  a large  library. 

3.  A similar  story  is  told  of  many  Chinese  Em- 
perors. See  Yule’s  “ Marco  Polo  ” II  405  and  note. 

4.  The  phrase  is  explained  thus:  The  Emperor  had 

flowers  carved  in  relief  on  the  soles  of  his  favorite’s 
shoes.  He  then  caused  gold  leaf  to  be  scattered  in  the 
streets  with  the  result  that  when  his  mistress  walked 
abroad  she  left  the  impression  of  flowers  wherever  she 
trod. 

5.  A charming  translation  of  Fa  Hsien’s  “ Travels  ” 
is  given  by  Dr.  Legge  (Clarendon  Press,  1886).  Beal’s 
“ Records  of  Western  Kingdoms  ” contains  the  narra- 
tives of  Fa  Hsien,  Sung  and  Hiouen  Tsang. 

6.  For  Bodhidharma  (called  in  Japan  Daruma)  see 
Hackmann,  “ Buddhism  as  a Religion,”  pp.  80,  213,  239, 
280;  Griffis,  “The  Religion  of  Japan,”  pp.  208,  254. 


108 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  T‘ANG  DYNASTY 
A.  D.  618-905. 

Kao  Tsu T‘ai  Tsung  — introduction  of  for- 

eign religions  — the  advance  of  learning  — Social 
welfare  — last  years  of  T‘ai  Tsung  — Kao  Tsung 
— Chung  Tsung  — the  Empress  Wu  Hou  — Chung 
Tsung’s  successors  — the  reforms  of  Yang  Yen  — 
Wu  Tsung  — end  of  the  dynasty  — poetry  under 
the  T‘ang  dynasty  — art  — commerce  — the  popu- 
lation of  China. 

Kao  Tsu.  A.  D.  618-627.  Li  Yiian,  the  gen- 
eral through  whose  treachery  the  last  of  the  preced- 
ing dynasties  had  been  displaced,  now  took  the 
throne  of  China  under  the  name  of  Kao  Tsu , thus 
inaugurating,  however  unpropitiously,  the  splendid 
line  of  the  T‘angs.  His  nine  years’  rule  was  dis- 
turbed by  invasions  by  the  Turks  and  Kao  Tsu 
adopted  the  dangerous  policy  of  buying  off  the  in- 
vaders with  money.  The  plan,  so  futile  in  the  ma- 
jority of  the  cases  in  which  it  has  been  employed,  in 
this  instance  succeeded,  at  any  rate  long  enough  to 
afford  the  dynasty  time  to  consolidate  its  strength 
and  the  Turkish  power,  correspondingly,  time  to 
wane.  Having  accomplished  so  much,  Kao  Tsu  re- 
signed the  cares  of  state  to  his  son,  Li  Sliih-min , al- 
ready famous  as  the  Prince  of  T‘ang. 

109 


110  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


T‘ai  Tsung.  A.  D.  627-650.  Li  Shih-min  had 
already,  as  we  have  said,  achieved  fame.  As  a war- 
rior he  had  fought  against  and  vanquished  the  Turks 
whom  it  was  his  father’s  policy  to  subsidize.  As  a 
man  he  had  already  proved  superior  to  the  manifold 
temptations  of  the  Court.  Gazing  upon  the  luxuri- 
ous furnishings  of  the  magnificent  palaces  and  con- 
trasting all  this  with  the  poverty  of  the  people,  he 
exclaimed,  44  Must  a nation  be  thus  exhausted  in  or- 
der that  it  may  pander  to  the  vanity  and  passions 
of  one  man?  ” On  the  abdication  of  Kao  Tsu,  he 
took  the  name  of  T‘ai  Tsung  and  made  it  one  of  the 
most  glorious  in  the  annals  of  China.  He  was  able 
from  the  first  to  inspire  a singular  measure  of  devo- 
tion in  the  hearts  of  many  brave  soldiers,  and  the 
two  heroes,  Yu-ch4e  Kung  and  Tsin  Kung,  who  kept 
watch  and  ward  at  his  chamber  door,  became  the 
two  worthies,  44  the  guardians  of  the  door,”  whose 
names,  or  the  equivalent,  are  pasted  on  the  doors  of 
houses  to  the  present  day. 

T4ai  Tsung  proceeded  at  once  to  make  the  name 
of  China  respected  beyond  the  frontiers.  He  con- 
quered the  tribes  westward  to  the  Caspian,  divided 
the  subjugated  realms  into  satrapies,  after  the  Per- 
sian manner,  and  ruled  vigorously  over  the  whole 
vast  Empire,  until,  before  long,  the  men  of  the  south 
were  as  proud  to  speak  of  themselves  as  T'ang  jen , 
or  44  men  of  T4ang,”  as  they  had  formerly  been  to 
describe  themselves  as  44  the  sons  of  Han.”  Am- 
bassadors came  from  far  lands,  including  the  king- 
doms of  India ; the  Greek  Emperor  sent  a mission  to 
his  court,  and  scholars  of  renown  continued  their 
journeys  from  China  to  the  Western  Kingdoms. 


THE  T‘ANG  DYNASTY 


111 


Introduction  of  Foreign  Religions.  T‘ai 
Tsung  was  a beneficent  patron  of  religion  and  mis- 
sionaries of  all  faiths  had  reason  to  be  grateful  for 
his  tolerance  and  even  hospitality.  In  A.  D.  621 
came  to  China  the  first  representatives  of  the  reli- 
gion of  Zoroaster,  driven  out  of  the  land  of  its  birth 
by  the  fierce  onslaughts  of  the  hosts  of  Islam.  A 
little  later,  in  A.  D.  628,  came  the  emissaries  of  the 
persecuting  creed,  including,  it  is  said,  an  uncle  of 
the  Prophet  himself,  and  Muhamadans  and  Magians 
settled  down  peaceably  in  the  capital,  Singanfu, 
where  both  a fire-temple  and  a mosque  were  erected, 
by  permission  of  the  Emperor.  Three  years  later, 
A.  D.  631,  came  Olupun,  the  missionary  of  Nestorian 
Christianity,  and  the  faith  he  taught  was  so  gener- 
ously welcomed  and  so  readily  accepted  that  when 
the  famous  Inscription  of  Singanfu  1 was  set  up  in 
A.  D.  781,  it  expressed  the  gratitude  of  large  num- 
bers of  ecclesiastics,  Chinese  and  Syrian,  for  the 
almost  unprecedented  success  of  the  Christian  faith 
in  the  Empire.  The  long  list  of  names  attached,  in 
both  Chinese  and  Syriac  script,  attests  the  reality 
of  the  work  which  had  been  accomplished.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact,  contrasting  significantly  enough 
with  the  religious  strife  of  the  west,  that  at  this  time 
in  China  the  teachers  of  so  many  antagonistic  creeds 
seem  to  have  settled  down  in  the  center  of  the  Em- 
pire, to  live  in  harmony  and  concord.  The  remark- 
able interchange  of  influences  from  varied  races  and 
religions  at  this  time  is  most  interestingly  illustrated 
in  the  great  collection  of  documents  which  filled  the 
cell  at  Tun-huang  and  made  up  what  Dr.  Stein  calls 
his  “ polyglot  temple  library.”  One  of  the  most 


112  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


interesting  and  significant  is  the  Manichean  Con- 
fession2 which  proves  that  the  followers  of  Mani 
as  well  as  those  of  Zoroaster  and  Muhamad  had 
found  a welcome  in  the  China  of  the  time. 

The  Advancement  of  Learning.  T‘ai  Tsung 
not  only  tolerated  widely  divergent  forms  of  reli- 
gion ; he  also  patronized  learning,  founded  a literary 
academy  at  the  capital,  promoted  the  publication 
of  a splendid  edition  of  the  Classics,  known  as  “ the 
Thirteen  King,”  and  inaugurated  the  system  of 
Civil  Service  Examinations  in  literature.  He  be- 
lieved that  the  “ ancient  writings  were  accepted  by 
all  as  the  best  instructors  of  the  manners  and  tastes 
of  the  people,”  and  was  wont  to  say  that  “ by  using 
a mirror  of  brass  you  may  see  to  adjust  your  cap; 
by  using  antiquity  as  a mirror,  you  may  learn  to 
foresee  the  rise  and  fall  of  Empires.” 

Social  Welfare.  The  Emperor  was  also  sym- 
pathetically mindful  of  the  social  condition  of  the 
people.  One  day,  paying  a visit  to  the  public 
prisons,  he  found  two  hundred  and  ninety  criminals 
condemned  to  death.  He  at  once  sent  them  forth 
into  the  fields  to  assist  in  the  harvest,  accepting  their 
word  of  honor  to  return  when  the  work  was  done. 
To  a man  they  justified  their  sovereign’s  trust  and 
T‘ai  Tsung  was  so  pleased  at  their  fidelity  that  he 
forthwith  set  them  free.  Thereupon  he  made  the 
rule  that  henceforth  no  Emperor  should  ratify  a 
sentence  of  death  until  he  had  passed  three  days  in 
abstinence,  lest  the  lives  of  ignorant  or  innocent 
people  should  be  sacrificed  to  the  impulse  or  the 
passion  of  a moment. 

A remarkable  work  is  attributed  to  the  Emperor 


THE  T‘ANG  DYNASTY 


113 


on  the  Science  of  Government  which  is  known  as 
the  44  Golden  Mirror.”  The  extracts  which  have 
been  translated  for  us  by  one  of  the  old  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries, Du  Halde,  show  that  the  title  was  not 
unworthily  bestowed. 

Not  less  worthy  of  fame  than  the  Emperor  was 
his  beautiful  wife,  Chang  Sun.  When  she  was  dying 
she  gave  utterance  to  the  following  memorable 
words:  44  Put  no  jewels  in  my  coffin;  let  my  head 

rest  upon  a wooden  tile ; and  fasten  my  hair  with 
wooden  pins.  Listen  to  no  unworthy  men  and  build 
no  costly  palaces.  If  you  promise  me  these  things 
I shall  die  happy.” 

The  Last  Years  of  T4ai  Tsung.  T4ai  Tsung’s 
life  was  all  too  short  for  the  plans  his  ambition  sug- 
gested, although  a legend  tells  of  the  prolonging  of 
his  days  by  an  alteration  of  the  words  of  the  Book 
of  Fate.  He  is  even  said  to  have  died  and  gone 
down  into  purgatory,  but,  like  Hezekiah,  King  of 
Judah,  he  rebelled  against  the  shortening  of  his  days, 
and  the  figures  were  altered  on  the  tablets  of  fate 
so  that  twenty  years  were  added  to  his  length  of 
rule.  Towards  the  end  T4ai  Tsung  attempted  the 
conquest  of  Korea  but  was  obliged  to  leave  the  com- 
pletion of  this  task  to  his  successor.  The  great 
conqueror  had,  ere  he  died,  the  frequent  experience 
of  kings  in  disillusionment  and  disappointment. 
On  several  occasions  his  life  was  attempted,  once  by 
his  own  son.  He  was  thus  painfully  reminded  of 
the  instability  of  all  human  power  and  learned,  like 
others  in  later  time,  that  44  the  path  of  glory  leads 
but  to  the  grave.”  Once,  voyaging  upon  the  river 
Wei,  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  44  My  children,  the 


114  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


waves  which  float  our  bark  are  able  to  submerge  it  in 
an  instant:  assuredly  the  people  are  like  the  waves 
and  the  Emperor  like  the  fragile  bark.”  3 

However,  when  T‘ai  Tsung  died,  his  greatness  was 
not  unrecognized.  The  grief  of  the  people  knew  no 
bounds  and  even  the  foreign  envoys  are  said  to  have 
cut  themselves  with  knives  and  lancets  and  sprinkled 
the  dead  Emperor’s  bier  with  their  self-shed  blood. 

Kao  Tsung.  A.  D.  650-683.  The  reign  of  Kao 
Tsung  is  less  notable  for  anything  that  concerns  the 
Emperor  himself  than  for  the  influence  of  that  re- 
markable and  most  masterful  woman,  the  Empress 
Wu  Hou,  whose  career  in  many  respects  reminds  us 
of  that  other  strong  Empress  who  controlled  to  so 
great  a degree  the  destinies  of  China  in  the  last 
years  of  the  19th  Century.  Wu  Hou,  in  spite  of 
her  terrible  cruelty,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
great  figures  of  Chinese  history. 

Wu  Hou.  As  a girl  of  twelve  or  fourteen,  Wu 
Hou,  or  as  she  was  then  called  Wu  Chao,  was  taken 
from  her  humble  home  to  a place  in  the  harem  of  the 
great  T‘ai  Tsung.  On  that  Emperor’s  death  she 
had  nothing  apparently  to  expect  but  the  usual  fate 
of  life-long  seclusion,  and  retired  to  a Buddhist  nun- 
nery, where  she  took  the  vows.  The  new  king,  how- 
ever, Kao  Tsung,  was  attracted  by  her  and  restored 
her  to  the  palace.  Here  she  soon  supplanted  the 
legitimate  queen,  whom  she  caused  to  be  mutilated, 
and  gradually  usurped  every  high  office  of  state, 
ruling  for  a while  by  taking  part  in  the  councils 
from  behind  a curtain  and  at  length  proceeding  to 
extreme  lengths  as  an  uncontrolled  and  independent 
ruler.  She  even  usurped  the  most  exclusive  pre- 


THE  T‘ANG  DYNASTY 


115 


rogative  of  the  Chinese  Emperors,  the  right  of 
sacrificing  to  Shang  Ti.  She  filled  the  palace  with 
her  favorites  and  completely  overbore  her  indolent 
husband.  Her  generals  completed  the  conquest  of 
Korea,  defeated  Khitans  and  Tibetans,  and  she  her- 
self ruled  with  vigor  and  success.  Korea  was  placed 
under  a governor  and  became  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses a Chinese  province,  although  natives  were  not 
excluded  from  civil  and  military  office.  Kao  Tsung 
himself  was  remarkable  for  little  beyond  his  devo- 
tion to  Taoism  and  his  interest  in  the  propagation 
of  this  faith  was  not  without  result,  but  it  is  Wu 
Hou  who  ruled.  On  Kao  Tsung’s  death,  the  heir, 
Cliung  Tsung , was  ruthlessly  set  aside  and  in  A.  D. 
690  Wu  Hou  had  herself  proclaimed  as  “ Emperor  ” 
(literally  it  might  be  translated  6 God  Almighty  ’) 
of  the  Chou  dynasty,  assuming  all  the  attributes 
and  prerogatives  of  supreme  power.  In  A.  D.  705 
a military  conspiracy  succeeded  in  displacing  her 
from  power  and  shortly  afterwards  this  most  mascu- 
line of  Dowagers  died  at  the  age  of  81.  The  super- 
seded heir,  Chung  Tsung , was  now  at  last  permitted 
to  take  up  the  reins  of  Government. 

Chung  Tsung.  A.  D.  705-710.  The  new  king, 
who  had  hitherto  suffered  from  the  tyranny  of  a 
mother,  was  now  destined  to  groan  beneath  the 
domination  of  his  wife.  This  lady,  Wei  Hou , was 
desirous  of  emulating  the  career  of  her  mother-in- 
law,  and  poor  Chung  Tsung  was  thus  doubly  cheated 
by  fate.  Our  regret,  however,  is  the  less  since  he 
seems  to  have  been  a man  of  effeminate  and  vicious 
character,  scarcely  entitled  to  the  sympathy  of  pos- 
terity. Apparently  he  only  resisted  turning  over 


116  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


the  Government  to  his  wife,  in  order  to  bestow  it 
upon  his  two  daughters,  the  princesses  Ngan-lo  and 
T4ai-p4ing.  He  died  eventually  of  poison  in  A.  D. 
610  and  was  succeeded  by  Jui  Tsung.  The  queen 
met  her  fate  in  the  following  year,  being  put  to  death 
with  many  of  her  adherents. 

The  Successors  of  Chung  Tsung.  Jui  Tsung , 
A.  D.  710-713,  reigned  just  long  enough  to  reveal 
himself  as  a feeble  and  incapable  inheritor  of  the 
T4ang  renown.  Hsuan  Tsung , commonly  known  as 
Ming  Huang,  who  had  taken  a leading  part  in  re- 
sisting the  pretensions  of  Wei  Hou,  followed  and 
reigned  from  A.  D.  713  to  756.  It  was  a long  reign 
but  troubled  throughout  by  revolt  within  and 
foreign  invasion  from  without.  The  wise  counsel 
of  the  statesman  Chang  Chiu-ling,  who  presented  his 
master  with  a treatise  known  as  44  the  Golden  Mirror 
for  the  Sovereign’s  birthday,”  might  have  averted 
many  evils,  had  it  been  followed,  but  Hsiian  Tsung 
did  not  take  the  hint.  He  had  begun  his  reign  with 
simple,  even  austere  tastes,  closing  the  silk  factories 
and  forbidding  the  ladies  of  the  court  to  wear  jewels 
or  embroideries.  But  gradually  the  desire  to  estab- 
lish a brilliant  court  possessed  him.  His  patronage 
of  literature  and  art  took  extravagant  forms. 
Scenes  of  debauchery,  encouraged  by  the  favorite 
concubine,  Yang  Kuei-fei ,4  became  frequent.  The 
love  of  war  led  to  expeditions  which  increased  ex- 
penses and  brought  in  return  but  scant  measure  of 
glory.  On  one  occasion  the  Tibetans  even  succeeded 
in  capturing  and  pillaging  the  capital.  The  re- 
sponsibility has  sometimes  been  laid  upon  the 
shoulders  of  a certain  execrated  minister,  Li  Lin-fu, 


THE  T‘ANG  DYNASTY 


117 


who  is  described  in  the  phrase,  44  honey  on  his  lips 
and  in  his  hand  a sword,”  but  the  end  came  all  the 
same  to  Hsiian  Tsung  in  rebellion,  flight  and  abdi- 
cation. Compelled  to  witness  the  butchery  of  his 
mistress  before  his  eyes  he  went  into  exile,  leaving 
to  his  son  the  extrication  of  the  Empire  from  con- 
fusion and  to  posterity  the  memory  of  a reign  which 
has  sometimes  been  compared  with  that  of  Louis 
XV  of  France.  Su  Tsung  did  his  best  from  A.  D. 
756  to  762,  but,  in  spite  of  the  prowess  of  the  re- 
nowned general  Kuo  Tzu-i,  whose  exploits  cover  the 
reigns  of  four  successive  Emperors,  it  was  already 
manifest  that  the  prestige  of  the  T4ang  line  was  on 
the  wane,  and  its  former  glories  in  danger  of  being 
forgotten.  Weakling  followed  weakling  upon  the 
throne  and  the  whole  story  is  one  inglorious  and 
monotonous  record  of  dissension,  misrule,  and  im- 
potent exposure  to  foreign  foes. 

The  Reforms  of  Yang  Yen.  A brief  mention 
should  be  made,  ere  we  leave  the  history  of  the  T4ang 
period,  of  an  attempt  made  during  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Te  Tsung  (A.  D.  780-805)  to  reform  the 
then  existing  system  of  taxation.  The  official  re- 
sponsible for  the  effort  was  the  Minister  of  State, 
Yang  Yen , who  was  raised  by  the  above-named  Em- 
peror from  an  inferior  station.  44  The  three  exist- 
ing forms  of  monetary  and  personal  obligation 
towards  the  State,  known  respectively  as  land-tax, 
statutory  labor,  and  payment  in  kind,  were  abol- 
ished, and  in  their  stead  a semi-annual  collection  of 
money-tax  was  introduced,  an  entirely  new  assess- 
ment throughout  the  Empire  forming  its  basis.”  5 
The  result,  however,  was  not  satisfactory,  and  the 


118  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


unsuccessful  political  economist  was  banished,  and, 
before  reaching  his  intended  destination,  strangled 
by  the  Emperor’s  order. 

Wu  Tsung.  A.  D.  841-847.  Wu  Tsung  de- 
taches himself  a little  from  the  other  monarchs  of 
the  9th  Century  and  gains  a certain  sinister  interest 
as  the  furious  persecutor  of  Buddhism.  He  believed 
that  the  social  weakness  and  military  incapacity  of 
the  Empire  was  largely  due  to  the  multiplication  of 
monasteries  and  nunneries  and  the  consequent  with- 
drawal of  large  numbers  of  men  and  women  from 
the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  civil  life.  Cer- 
tainly there  was  something  to  be  said  for  his  view. 
The  8th  Century  had  witnessed  a remarkable  revival 
of  Buddhism  with  a corresponding  tendency  to  the 
multiplication  of  monasteries.  “ Generals  forsook 
their  armies,  ministers  their  portfolios,  members  of 
the  Imperial  family  their  palaces,  and  merchants 
their  business  and  their  families  to  build  or  dwell  in 
monasteries  away  from  the  clash  of  arms,  the  cares 
of  State,  or  the  din  and  bustle  of  life.”  6 The  Chi- 
nese records  state  that  four  thousand  six  hundred 
monasteries  were  destro}^ed  in  this  persecution  and 
upwards  of  a quarter  of  a million  monks  and  nuns 
sent  back  to  the  secular  life.  It  is  evident  that  not 
only  Buddhists  but  Christians,  Magians  and  Ma- 
nicheans  also  were  attacked  by  this  outburst  of 
intolerance  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  through 
this  persecution  that  the  hopes  inscribed  upon  the 
Nestorian  tablet  of  Singanfu  were  so  untimely 
blighted.  The  proscription  of  Buddhism  appears, 
however,  to  have  lasted  but  a few  years,  since  we  find 
that  the  monasteries  were  once  again  occupied  and 


THE  T‘ANG  DYNASTY 


119 


recognized  under  I Tsung  in  A.  D.  860.  The  op- 
portune finding  of  a relic  of  the  Buddha,  which  was 
transported  to  the  capital  amid  great  manifestation 
of  popular  enthusiasm,  had  something  to  do,  no 
doubt,  with  this  change  of  policy  in  the  direction  of 
tolerance. 

End  of  the  Dynasty.  To  onlookers  at  this  time 
the  T‘ang  dynasty  was  plainly  doomed.  The  Arab 
traders  then  at  Canton  compared  the  condition  of 
China  with  that  of  the  Macedonian  Empire  on  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  general  Li 
Ch‘uan-chung,  better  known  as  Chu  Wen,  is  found 
at  the  end  of  the  9th  Century  struggling  against 
his  ambitions  on  the  one  hand  and  yet  hopeless  of 
loyalty,  wavering  between  the  policy  based  on  his 
respect  for  the  past  and  that  suggested  by  desire  to 
make  secure  the  future.  He  assassinated  one  mon- 
arch in  order  to  place  another,  a mere  infant,  upon 
the  throne.  But  the  temptations  and  opportunities 
of  power  proved  too  strong  for  his  loyalty  to  the 
T‘angs  and,  hardly  two  years  after,  spite  of  the 
protests  and  warnings  of  his  elder  brother,  Chu 
Wen  proclaimed  himself  the  first  sovereign  of  a new 
dynasty,  to  be  known  in  history  as  that  of  the  Later 

Poetry  under  the  T‘ang  Dynasty.  For  many 
reasons  the  T‘ang  dynasty  deserves  the  name  of  the 
Golden  Era  of  Chinese  history.  Only  a brief  refer- 
ence may  here  be  made  to  several  phases  of  this  re- 
nown. Foremost  in  splendor  is  the  poetry  of  the 
age.  “ Poetry,”  says  a modern  Chinese  writer, 
“ reached  perfection  under  the  T‘angs.”  The 
“ Complete  Collection  of  the  Poetry  of  the  T‘ang 


120  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Period  ” contains  48,900  poems  in  thirty  volumes. 

Li  Po.  Many  of  these  poets  were,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding age,  men  of  disreputable  character,  such  as 
Wang  Po , who  had  to  get  drunk  before  he  could 
write.  But  the  age  is  represented  also  by  two  cele- 
brated poets,  Tu  Fu , and  (the  most  widely  cele- 
brated of  all  Chinese  poets)  Li  Po.  Li  Po  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  characters  in  Chinese  liter- 
ature. Endowed  with  every  grace  of  person,  a lover 
of  wine  and  song,  he  went  up  confidently  to  the  cap- 
ital to  compete  for  literary  honors.  But  he  refused 
to  make  the  customary  presents  to  the  examiners, 
such  as  ordinarily  ensured  success.  Consequently 
the  examiners,  one  of  whom  was  a brother  of  the 
Empress,  treated  him  with  contempt  and  pronounced 
his  effort  a failure.  One  said,  44  This  scribbler  is 
fit  for  nothing  but  to  grind  my  ink.”  The  other 
added,  44  He  is  good  for  nothing  but  to  lace  up  my 
buskins.”  Li  then  and  there  registered  a vow  that 
the  time  should  come  when  the  insult  should  be 
avenged  by  the  one  examiner  grinding  his  ink  and 
the  other  lacing  his  buskins.  The  day  came  when 
this  proud  boast  was  fulfilled.  Li,  now  a doctor  of 
the  Hanlin,  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  com- 
manded the  First  Minister  of  State,  his  quondam 
examiner,  to  rub  his  ink-stone,  and  the  other,  who 
was  now  General  of  the  Guards,  to  lace  up  his  bus- 
kins. Li  Po,  however,  did  not  greatly  enjoy  the 
triumph  of  his  talent,  for  after  narrowly  escaping 
the  penalty  of  death  for  sedition,  he  drowned  himself 
to  escape  the  persecution  of  his  enemies.  He  ex- 
claimed as  he  jumped  into  the  water:  44  I’m  going 

to  catch  the  moon  in  the  midst  of  the  sea.”  7 A less 


THE  'FANG  DYNASTY 


121 


romantic  account  of  Li  Po’s  end  is  that  he  was  drunk 
and  fell  into  the  sea  from  leaning  too  far  over  the 
edge  of  the  boat. 

Tu  Fu,  who  has  been  called  the  “ Chatterton  of 
China,”  likewise  came  to  a tragic  end.  He  “ failed 
to  distinguish  himself  at  the  public  examinations, 
at  which  verse-making  counts  so  much,  but  had 
nevertheless  so  high  an  opinion  of  his  own  poetry 
that  he  prescribed  it  as  a cure  for  malarial  fever.”  s 
Like  so  many  of  his  companions  of  the  muse,  in 
China,  he  died  of  dissipation,  or  to  put  it  more  char- 
itably, after  starving  for  ten  days  during  which 
he  had  nothing  to  eat  but  roots,  he  feasted  too 
heartily  on  roast  beef  and  white  wine  and  died  upon 
the  steps  of  a temple.  His  collected  works,  like 
those  of  Li  Po,  are  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library.9 

Chang  Chih-ho.  Of  an  entirely  different  stamp 
was  the  Taoist  philosopher,  Chang  Chih-ho , who 
called  himself  “ The  old  Fisherman  of  the  Mists  and 
Waters.”  He  spent  his  time  in  angling,  but  used 
no  bait,  his  object  not  being  to  catch  fish.  When 
asked  why  he  roamed  about,  Chang  answered  and 
said:  “ With  the  Empyrean  as  my  home,  the  bright 

moon  my  companion,  and  the  four  seas  my  insep- 
arable friends, — what  mean  you  by  roaming?” 
And  when  a friend  offered  him  a comfortable  home 
instead  of  his  poor  boat,  he  replied : “ I prefer  to 

follow  the  gulls  into  cloudland  rather  than  bury 
myself  beneath  the  dust  of  the  world.”  10 

Han  Yu.  A scholar,  who  deserves  to  be  men- 
tioned on  other  grounds,  than  that  he  was  a cele- 
brated poet,  is  Han  Yu,  described  as  foremost  among 
the  statesmen,  philosophers,  and  poets  of  the  Fang 


122  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


dynasty,  and  one  of  the  most  venerated  names  in 
Chinese  literature.  As  a philosopher  he  took  a 
middle  ground  between  those  who  with  Confucius 
and  Mencius  maintained  that  the  nature  of  man  is 
innately  good  and  those  who  believed  it  to  be 
naturally  depraved.  His  doctrine,  we  are  told, 
found  much  acceptance.  He  was  foremost  among 
those  who  protested  to  the  Emperor  against  the 
reverence  paid  to  the  alleged  Buddha  relic,  men- 
tioned above.  For  this  candor  he  was  banished,  but 
he  used  his  time  of  exile  to  good  purpose.  His 
labors  for  the  civilization  of  the  people  of  Kwang- 
tung  have  been  symbolized  in  the  story  of  the  expul- 
sion of  a gigantic  crocodile  which  had  been  ravaging 
the  province. 

Art.  Of  the  splendid  art  of  the  period  some  idea 
may  be  gained  from  a study  of  the  pictures  brought 
away  from  the  oasis  of  Tun-huang  in  Eastern 
Turkestan  by  Dr.  Stein.  Many  of  them  may  now 
be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  They  deal  largely 
with  Buddhist  subjects  and  are  of  a very  high  order 
of  excellence.11  The  greatest  painter  of  the  period, 
indeed  of  all  periods  in  China,  was  Ww  Tao-yiian. 
No  work  at  present  exists  which  can  with  certainty 
be  ascribed  to  him,  but  a Japanese  picture  in  the 
British  Museum,  “ The  Death  of  Buddha,”  founded 
on  one  of  his  masterpieces,  may  give  some  idea  of 
his  originality  and  power.12  The  story  is  told  that 
when  men  criticized  adversely  the  famous  picture 
of  the  “ Western  Paradise,”  Wu  Tao-yiian  answered 
his  critics  by  stepping  calmly  into  the  Paradise 
which  he  had  painted,  and  so  disappeared  from  the 
sight  of  men. 


THE  T*ANG  DYNASTY 


123 


The  pottery,  too,  of  the  T‘ang  period  is  remark- 
able for  its  artistic  worth,  especially  the  grace  and 
beauty  of  its  lines.13 

Commerce.  China  now  was  widely  known 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  Arab  traders,  push- 
ing out  from  India  and  the  Malay  peninsula,  began 
to  establish  trading  stations  at  Canton  and  other 
Chinese  ports.  In  A.  D.  751  they  erected  in  Canton 
a pagoda  or  minaret  which  still  stands.  They  pre- 
sumed so  much  on  their  right  to  remain  for  trade 
that  they  occasionally  also  claimed  the  privilege  of 
burning  and  pillaging.  The  traveler,  Ibn  Wahab, 
has  left  us  a very  interesting  account  of  travels  in 
China  in  the  9th  Century.14  A large  number  of 
foreigners  seem  to  have  been  at  this  time  perma- 
nently resident  in  China.  At  the  close  of  the  8th 
Century  four  thousand  foreign  families  are  said  to 
have  been  settled  in  the  capital.  That  China  was 
not  unacquainted  with  the  political  condition  of  the 
outside  world  we  may  gather  from  the  remark  of 
a T‘ang  Emperor  quoted  in  the  Arab  “ Chain  of 
Chronicles  ” to  the  effect  that  there  were  five  great 
sovereigns,  viz:  The  King  of  Irak  (the  Khalif), 

who  was  King  of  Kings ; the  King  of  China,  who  was 
King  of  Men ; the  King  of  Turks,  who  was  King  of 
wildmen ; the  King  of  India,  who  was  King  of  ele- 
phants ; and  the  King  of  Rome,  who  was  King  of 
fine  men.15 

Population.  It  may  be  worth  adding  that  a 
census  taken  of  the  Fifteen  Provinces  in  the  year 
A.  D.  754  showed  that  the  Empire  at  this  epoch  con- 
tained nine  and  a half  million  families,  or  nearly 
fifty-three  million  individuals. 


NOTES 


1.  There  are  many  good  accounts,  with  translations, 
of  the  Inscription  of  Singanfu.  Those  of  Pauthier, 
Legge  and  Wells  Williams  may  all  be  consulted  with  ad- 
vantage. There  is  also  a more  recent  description,  with 
some  good  photographs,  by  Nichols  in  “ Through  Hid- 
den Shensi.” 

2.  “ Ruins  of  Desert  Cathay,”  II  211  ff. 

3.  Pauthier,  “ Chine,”  p.  294. 

4.  The  poet  Po  Chii-i  has  a really  striking  poem 
on  the  lady  Yang  and  her  tragic  fate,  commencing  — 

“ His  imperial  Majesty,  a slave  to  beauty, 
Longed  for  a ‘ subverter  of  Empires  ’ ; 

For  years  he  had  sought  in  vain 
To  secure  such  a treasure  for  his  palace 
From  the  Yang  family  came  a maiden,”  etc. 

5.  Wm.  F.  Mayers. 

6.  Ross. 

7.  S.  Wells  Williams,  “The  Middle  Kingdom,”  I 
703. 

8.  Giles,  “ Chinese  Biographical  Dictionary.” 

9.  Remusat,  “ Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques,”  II 
174. 

10.  Giles,  “ History  of  Chinese  Literature.” 

11.  Catalogue  of  Exhibition  of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
Pictures  in  the  British  Museum. 

12.  Br.  Mus.  Cat.,  109. 

13.  Brinkley’s  “China.”  Section  on  “Early  Wares 
of  China/* 

14.  Kerr’s  “ Collection  of  Travels,”  I 47  ff. 

15.  Kerr,  I 75. 


124 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  FIVE  LITTLE  DYNASTIES 
A.  D.  907-960. 

The  Wu  Tai  — shifting  of  Capital  — Shih  Tsung 
— Chao  Kuang-yin. 

The  Wu  Tai.  On  the  fall  of  the  T‘ang  dynasty 
the  situation  in  China  was  not  unlike  that  in  Europe 
about  the  same  time,  and  in  the  course  of  fifty  years 
we  find  five  short-lived  dynasties  which  are  known 
respectively  as  the  Later  Liang , the  Later  T'ang , 
the  Later  Tsin , the  Later  Han , and  the  Later  Chou. 
They  reveal  their  inferior  and  dependent  character 
by  thus  seeking  to  borrow  from  the  reputation  of 
previous  dynasties.  None  of  them  had  more  than 
a local  authority  and  in  some  cases  their  sway  was 
restricted  to  one  or  two  provinces.  In  the  mean- 
time the  southern  provinces  for  the  most  part  man- 
aged their  affairs  without  any  Imperial  interference 
whatsoever.  It  was  essentially  a time  for  desper- 
adoes and  soldiers  of  fortune.  “ To  give  peace  to 
the  Empire,”  said  the  counselor  Shih  Hung-chao, 
“ and  put  down  rebellion,  a good  sword  and  a long 
spear  are  wanted:  of  what  use  is  a hair-awl?  ” The 
independence  of  China  was,  during  this  period,  main- 
tained with  very  great  difficulty  and  lavish  presents, 

and  even  actual  tribute,  had  to  be  paid  to  the  border 

125 


126  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


tribes  by  sovereigns  of  the  later  Tsin  dynasty.  It 
was  this  ignominy  which  caused  this  particular  line 
to  be  described  as  “ the  meanest  house  which  ever 
swayed  the  black  haired  people.” 

So  far  as  the  Empire  in  this  sordid  period  had 
any  center  at  all  the  capital  was  sometimes  at 
Singanfu  and  sometimes  at  Kaifengfu  on  the 
Huang-ho. 

Shih  Tsung.  A.  D.  954-959.  One  solitary 
figure  awakens  our  respect  and  sympathy  at  the 
close  in  Kuo  Jung,  who  came  to  the  throne  as  the 
second  of  the  Later  Chou  Emperors  in  A.  D.  954. 
To  ensure  humility  in  his  high  station,  the  young 
king,  whose  throne  name  was  Shih  Tsung , preserved 
in  his  palace  the  plow  and  other  implements  of  labor 
such  as  should  serve  to  remind  him  of  his  former 
low  estate.1 

In  the  time  of  famine  he  opened  the  public 
granaries  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  starving  pop- 
ulace and  sold  to  the  poor  on  credit.  When  re- 
minded by  his  ministers  that  the  payments  might 
never  be  made,  Shih  Tsung  replied  that  he  was  the 
father  of  the  people  and  could  not  see  his  children 
suffer.  He  melted  the  idols  of  the  temple  in  order 
to  coin  money,  which  had  become  very  scarce. 
Buddha  himself,  he  said,  who  did  so  much  for  men, 
would  certainly  raise  no  objections.  He  encouraged 
learning,  and  waged  successful  wars  against  the 
Khitans  and  Northern  Hans,  but  his  death  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-nine  put  an  end  to  the  hopes  of 
the  people.  The  child  heir,  a boy  of  only  six  years 
old,  was  adjudged  unequal  to  the  difficulties  of  a 
time  so  “ out  of  joint  ” and  by  popular  acclamation 


THE  FIVE  LITTLE  DYNASTIES  127 


the  crown  was  conferred  upon  the  head  of  the  army, 
the  general  Chao  Kuang-yin,  with  whom  begins  the 
new  dynasty  of  Sung. 


NOTE 


1.  Cf.  the  story  of  Kawah  and  the  blacksmith’s  apron 
(Shah-Nameh)  and  the  Japanese  story  of  Hideyoshi 
and  the  soldier’s  water  gourd. 


128 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 
A.  D.  960-1279. 

General  Summary  — T‘ai  Tsu  and  his  successors 
— the  Kin  Tatars  — Jenghiz  Khan  — conquests  of 
the  Southern  Sungs  — Wang  An-shih  — Ssu-mn 
Kuang  — the  Sung  Philosophers  — the  Sung  Art . 

General  summary.  The  history  of  the  Sung 
Dynast}',  including  as  it  does  the  reigns  of  eighteen 
Emperors,  must  be  divided  into  two  portions.  The 
former  deals  with  the  Sung  Dynasty  proper , when 
the  rulers  of  this  line  reigned  over  the  whole  land. 
This  period  continues  until  the  conquest  of  the  prov- 
inces north  of  the  Yangtse  Kiang  by  the  Tatars  in 
A.  D.  1127.  The  second  part  concerns  the  line 
generally  known  as  that  of  the  Southern  Sungs , and 
includes  the  sovereigns  who  ruled  south  of  the 
Yangtse  Kiang  up  to  the  time  of  Kublai  Khan. 

T‘ai  Tsu  and  his  successors.  The  general  Chao 
Kuang-yin  was  chosen  much  as  were  some  of  the 
later  Roman  Emperors  by  the  Praetorian  guard. 
The  soldiers  found  him  drunk,  threwT  over  him  the 
Yellow  Robe  before  he  could  say  Yea  or  Nay,  made 
a sudden  resolution  to  supersede  the  six  year  old 
sovereign  by  their  generalissimo,  and  so  proclaimed 
him  Emperor.  It  was  an  unpromising  beginning, 

but  T‘ai  Tsu , as  he  called  himself,  did  much  better 

129 


130  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


than  might  have  been  expected.  He  was  a good 
soldier,  of  powerful  physique  and  great  personal 
bravery.  Simple  in  his  tastes,  he  was  hospitable 
to  all;  his  house,  he  said,  wras  like  his  heart,  open  to 
all.  He  gave  away  his  own  fur  coat  to  a soldier, 
saying  that  he  wished  he  could  in  like  manner  pro- 
vide for  every  soldier  in  the  army.  He  was,  more- 
over, as  a ruler,  conscientious  in  the  fulfillment  of 
his  duties.  “ Do  you  think,”  he  said,  “ that  it  is 
so  easy  for  a sovereign  to  perform  his  duties?  He 
does  nothing  that  is  without  consequence.  This 
morning  the  thought  occurs  to  me  that  yesterday  I 
decided  a case  in  a wrong  manner,  and  this  memory 
robs  me  of  all  joy.”  As  he  lived,  so  he  died,  in  camp 
among  his  soldiers.  War  was  carried  on  during  the 
reign  more  or  less  constantly  with  the  Khitan 
Tatars  and  continued  throughout  the  reign  of  the 
succeeding  Emperor  T‘ai  Tsung.  A.  D.  976—997. 
From  a distance  the  history  of  the  time  appears  as 
a period  of  disgraceful  treaties,  threatened  in- 
vasions, and  proffered  tribute.  But  there  are  inter- 
ludes of  comparative  peace  and  prosperity.  T‘ai 
Tsung  was  unable  to  overcome  the  Khitan  power  in 
the  north  but  he  succeeded  fairly  well  in  overcoming 
the  resistance  to  his  rule  on  the  part  of  the  Han 
states  to  the  south.  His  successor  secured  eighteen 
years  of  peace  by  paying  tribute  to  the  Tatars. 
Then  came  Jen  Tsung,  A.  D.  1023—1064,  whose 
early  years  were  advantageously  influenced  by  his 
mother,  a woman  of  unusual  capacity  and  good 
sense.  These  ten  peaceful  years,  however,  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  rise  of  a new  power  in  the  northwest, 
the  Tangutan,  which  had  ultimately  to  be  bought 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 


131 


off  with  an  annual  payment  of  100,000  pieces  of 
silk  and  30,000  pounds  of  tea.  The  Khitan  Tatars, 
who  had  now  established  themselves,  as  the  Liao , 
or  Iron  Dynasty,  in  the  Liaotung  peninsula,  took 
advantage  of  the  situation  to  secure  the  promise  for 
themselves  also  of  an  annual  tribute,  in  this  case  of 
200,000  taels  of  silver  and  a large  quantity  of  silk. 

Che  Tsung,  A.  D.  1086—1101,  was  another  boy 
king  who  was  fortunate  in  a wise  and  capable  mother. 
Her  rule  was  much  more  profitable  to  the  Empire 
than  that  which  followed  when  the  young  prince  at- 
tained his  majority.  When  he  did  wrong  there  were 
censors  who  were  brave  enough  to  rebuke  the  appeal 
to  bad  imperial  precedents.  “ You  would  do  bet- 
ter,” they  said,  “ to  imitate  their  virtues  rather  than 
their  vices.”  But  apparently  Che  Tsung  preferred 
the  vices  to  the  virtues.  He  died  without  taking  the 
trouble  to  select  an  heir,  thinking  that  he  would  not 
die  so  soon,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Hui 
Tsung. 

The  Kin  Tatars.  It  was  Hui  Tsung , A.  D. 
1101-1126,  who  adopted  the  fatal  policy  of  attempt- 
ing the  expulsion  of  one  enemy  by  the  employment 
of  another.  The  Kin  Tatars,  the  ancestors  of  the 
present  Manchus,  a branch  of  the  Tatar  race,  set- 
tled near  the  river  Sungari,  were  only  too  ready  to 
accept  the  invitation.  Their  kinsmen  had  estab- 
lished what  they  called  the  Liao,  or  Iron  Dynasty. 
They  called  themselves  the  Kin,  or  Gold  Tatars,  for, 
said  they,  “ Iron  rusts,  gold  lasts.”  Therefore  they 
prepared  cheerfully  to  fight  the  Khitans,  to  whom 
they  were  superior  in  military  tactics  and  especially 
in  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  cavalry.  Their  wild 


132  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


charges  of  horsemen  were  not  a little  dreaded. 
“ Worse  than  wolves  and  tigers  ” was  the  verdict  of 
their  enemies.  They  succeeded  completely  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  Khitans,  but,  after  the  manner  of 
such  dangerous  auxiliaries,  they  did  not  consider  the 
performance  of  this  task  sufficient  and  proceeded 
further  to  the  conquest  of  their  employers.  In  this 
too  they  succeeded,  so  well  indeed  that,  from  A.  D. 
1127,  the  Sungs  lost  their  sway  in  all  the  region 
north  of  the  Yangtse  Kiang.  The  Chinese  were 
completely  demoralized  by  the  furious  onslaughts  of 
the  Tatar  cavalrymen  and  made  no  stand  even  at 
places  where  a desperate  resistance  might  have  been 
expected.  In  the  south  a son  of  Hui  Tsung  rallied 
his  countrymen  and  gave  new  vigor  to  the  Sung  dy- 
nasty within  its  now  restricted  area,  but  during  all 
the  century  that  followed  China  was  practically  two 
Empires,  with  two  capitals.  In  the  north  was 
Chang-tu , not  far  from  the  site  which  soon  became 
that  of  Pe-king  (i.e.  Northern  Capital).  In  the 
south  was,  first  of  all,  Nan-king  (i.e.  Southern  Cap- 
ital), and  afterwards  Hang-cliow.  Of  the  first  and 
last  of  these  three  great  cities  Marco  Polo  has  left 
us  most  interesting  descriptions.1 

Jenghiz  Khan.  Further  trouble  came  to  the 
distracted  north,  even  while  the  Kin  Tatars  were 
absorbed  in  their  contest  with  the  Southern  Sungs, 
through  the  epoch-making  career  of  Jenghiz  Khan , 
A.  D.  1162-1227. 2 From  A.  D.  1207  the  great  con- 
queror was  taking  the  preliminary  steps  for  the  sub- 
jugation of  China,  by  the  reduction  of  the  states  to 
the  north.  In  A.  D.  1211  he  advanced  towards 
China  itself  and  devastated  the  provinces  of  Chihli, 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 


133 


Shansi,  and  Shensi.  But  a severe  wound  compelled 
him  to  retire,  leaving  the  Khitan  monarch  a vassal 
in  Liaotung.  The  following  year  he  returned  and 
ninety  cities  in  the  northern  provinces  were  so  com- 
pletely destroyed  that  it  was  said  a horseman  could 
ride  over  their  sites  without  stumbling.  In  vain  was 
the  capital  moved  from  Changtu  back  to  Kaifengfu. 
The  campaign  of  desolation  went  on  and  from  A.  D. 
1220  for  at  least  five  years  the  ruthless  conqueror 
made  the  land  wTaste  as  a desert.  Millions  of  lives 
were  sacrificed  during  these  terrible  years.  At  last 
an  unfavorable  conjunction  of  planets  impressed  the 
superstitious  Mongol  with  the  presentiment  of  his 
approaching  doom.  He  set  his  face  westward,  but 
had  only  reached  the  Si-kiang  in  Kansuh,  when  he 
was  seized  with  illness.  Shortly  afterwards,  at  the 
camp  in  the  province  of  Shansi,  on  August  27th, 
A.  D.  1227,  he  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  leaving 
behind  him  a bloody  renown  at  which  every  reader 
of  history  must  shudder.  Nevertheless,  the  verdict 
is  a just  one, — “ He  is  remembered  as  a relentless 
and  irresistible  conqueror,  a human  scourge;  but  he 
was  much  more.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  instru- 
ments of  destiny,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  molders 
of  the  fate  of  nations  to  be  met  with  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  His  name  still  overshadows  Asia  with 
its  fame,  and  the  tribute  of  our  admiration  cannot 
be  denied.”  3 

Conquest  of  the  Southern  Sungs.  Ogdai,  son 
and  successor  of  Jenghiz,  continued  the  campaign 
of  devastation  until  his  death  in  A.  D.  1241.  The 
Kin  Emperor  in  the  north  held  out  in  his  new  capital, 
Junmgfu  until  all  the  aged  and  infirm  had  been 


134  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


slaughtered  to  lessen  the  ravages  of  famine,  till  all 
the  able-bodied  men  had  fallen,  and  women  alone 
were  left  to  guard  the  walls.  Then  he  set  fire  to  the 
city  and  burned  himself  alive  in  his  palace,  so  that 
the  storming  parties  of  the  allies  found  only  a smok- 
ing ruin.  So  ended  the  Kin  dynasty  of  the  north, 
a line  whose  nine  Emperors  had  ruled  in  that  part  of 
China  just  a hundred  and  eighteen  years.  The 
Sungs  in  the  south,  whose  folly  had  brought  the 
Mongol  invaders  to  their  very  borders,  held  out  for 
some  time  longer  against  the  victors,  but  the  war 
was  pressed  by  the  new  Khan,  Mangu,  son  of  Tuli, 
Ogdai’s  brother,  with  such  vigor  that  ultimate  suc- 
cess was  made  certain.  More  than  once,  however, 
there  were  heroic  episodes  which  go  to  show  that  the 
Sungs  had  not  altogether  lost  their  early  soldier-like 
qualities.  One  incident  in  particular  deserves  much 
wider  fame  than  it  has  ever  yet  succeeded  in  gaining, 
namely,  the  five  years’  defense  of  the  city  of  Hsiang- 
yang.  The  heroism  of  the  two  captains,  Chang- 
skun  and  Chang-hwei , who  “ broke  through  all  ” to 
reprovision  the  starving  city,  and  the  magnificent 
valor  of  Chang-kwei  in  attempting  to  cut  his  way 
out  again  when  his  task  had  been  successfully  accom- 
plished, has  moved  a modern  writer  to  say,  “ A 
Chinese  historian  might  be  pardoned  for  placing 
this  episode  on  a par  with  Sir  Richard  Grenville’s 
defense  of  the  4 Revenge.’  ” But  there  has  been  so 
far  lacking  a Tennyson  to  make  the  ballad  of 
Hsiangyang.  The  death  of  Mangu  in  A.  D.  1259, 
and  the  accession  of  his  able  younger  brother,  Kublai 
Khan,  marks  the  point  at  which  it  may  be  said  that 
the  Sung  dynasty  had  ceased  to  exist  and  the  new 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 


135 


era,  to  be  known  as  the  Yuan  (original)  or  Mongol 
dynasty  had  begun.  Still  for  twenty  years  more 
resistance  went  on.  Brave  generals,  devoted  to  the 
Sung  cause,  set  up  one  puppet  king  after  another, 
but  all  in  vain.  The  last  stand  was  made  by  the 
two  faithful  generals,  Chang  Shih-chieh  and  Lu 
Hsiu-fu,  at  an  island  off  Canton.  The  retreat  after 
some  months  was  carried  by  storm,  and,  when  Lu 
Hsiu-fu  had  seen  to  the  suicide  of  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren, he  clasped  the  last  claimant  of  the  Sung 
throne,  the  child  Ping  Ti,  in  his  arms  and  leaped  with 
him  into  the  sea.  “ Thus  perished  the  dynasty  of 
Sung.”  The  minister  of  the  dead  king,  Wen  T'ien- 
hsiang  (a  very  sympathetic  figure  in  Chinese  his- 
tory) was  made  prisoner,  carried  to  the  court  of 
Kublai  Khan,  and  there,  preferring  death  to  the 
renunciation  of  his  allegiance  to  the  fallen  dynasty, 
was  finally  slain. 

Wang  An-shih.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
and  interesting  figure  of  the  11th  Century  in  China 
was  the  socialist  philosopher  and  statesman,  Wang 
An-shih , who  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Ying  Tsung 
and  Shen  Tsung.  He  was  born  A.  D.  1021  in  the 
province  of  Kiangsi,  and  was  a son  of  a secretary 
to  one  of  the  Boards.  As  a scholar  he  distinguished 
himself  from  the  first,  making  his  pen  “ to  fly  over 
the  paper  ” at  the  examinations.  His  early  essays 
in  literature  attracted  attention  and  gained  him 
official  position,  first  as  magistrate,  then  as  judge, 
then  as  expositor  in  the  Hanlin  College,  and  in  A.  D. 
1069  as  State  Counselor  to  the  Emperor.  He  was 
a reformer  along  radical  lines  from  the  very  first, 
though  basing  his  reforms  on  ancient  precedents. 


136  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


He  was  a devoted  student  of  the  classics  of  which 
he  caused  new  editions  to  be  made  in  order  that  the 
people  might  understand  the  real  teaching  of  the 
Canon.  He  studied  other  literature  as  well.  “ I 
have  been,”  he  writes,  “ an  omnivorous  reader  of 
Books  of  all  kinds,  even,  for  example,  of  ancient 
medical  and  botanical  works.  I have,  moreover, 
dipped  into  treatises  of  agriculture  and  on  needle- 
work, all  of  which  I have  found  very  profitable  in 
aiding  me  to  seize  the  great  scheme  of  the  Canon 
itself.”  He  was  above  all  things  practical,  and 
made  a brave,  though  eventually  futile,  attack  on 
the  even  then  venerable  system  of  education.  For 
a time,  says  a Chinese  writer,  “ even  the  pupils  at 
village  schools  threw  away  their  textbooks  of 
rhetoric  and  began  to  study  primers  of  history, 
geography,  and  political  economy.”  For  many 
years  the  opposition  between  Wang  An-shih  and  the 
historian  Ssii-ma  Kuang  divided  China  into  two 
great  political  camps.  The  former  thought  it  his 
mission  to  change  and  regenerate;  the  latter  was 
equally  earnest  in  resisting  the  torrent  and  appealed 
constantly  to  the  traditions  of  the  past  and  to  the 
generally  conservative  spirit  of  the  race.  The  dis- 
pute grew  more  and  more  embittered  until  the 
accession  of  Shen  Tsung  gave  Wang  An-shih  an 
opportunity  to  put  his  theories  into  practice.  His 
main  principle  was  the  duty  of  the  Emperor  to  pro- 
vide for  all  his  people  at  least  the  opportunity  to 
procure  the  necessaries  of  life.  “ The  State,”  he 
said,  “ should  take  the  entire  management  of  com- 
merce, industry  and  agriculture  into  its  own  hands 
with  a view  to  succoring  the  working  classes  and 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 


137 


preventing  them  being  ground  into  the  dust  by  the 
rich.”  He  caused  the  establishment  of  tribunals 
throughout  the  land  to  regulate  the  daily  wage  and 
the  daily  price  of  merchandise.  The  soil  was  meas- 
ured, divided  into  equal  areas,  graded  according  to 
its  fertility,  in  order  that  there  might  be  a new  basis 
of  taxation.  The  produce  of  the  land  was  no  longer 
to  be  sent  to  the  capital  for  sale  on  behalf  of  the 
Imperial  Exchequer,  but  used,  first,  for  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes,  secondly  for  the  needs  of  the  district 
in  which  it  was  produced,  and  thirdly,  for  sale  to  the 
Government  of  the  remainder  at  as  cheap  a rate  as 
practicable  to  await  an  increase  in  value,  or  to 
supply  the  needs  of  other  districts.  The  taxes  were 
to  be  provided  by  the  rich  and  the  poor  were  to  be 
exempt.  Large  reserves  of  money  wrere  to  be  kept 
by  the  State  to  provide  pensions  for  the  aged,  sup- 
port for  the  unemployed,  and  help  for  the  needy 
generally.  Other  tribunals  were  established  for  the 
distribution  of  seed  for  sowing  in  the  waste  lands. 
These  were  to  be  cultivated  by  those  wrho  had  no 
other  work,  on  the  sole  condition  that  they  should 
repay  from  the  harvest  the  cost  of  the  seed.  To 
secure  protection  against  foreign  enemies  Wang 
ordered  that  every  family  with  more  than  two  males 
should  furnish  one  to  serve  as  a soldier,  while  every 
family  was  obliged  to  keep  a horse,  supplied  by  the 
Government,  to  provide  cavalry  in  case  of  need. 

Wang  An-shih  had  many  other  ideas,  especially 
interesting  to  us  in  these  days,  but  apparently  his 
theories  were  untimely,  for,  after  ten  years’  expe- 
rience of  them,  the  nation  decided  upon  an  entire 
change  of  policy.  There  were  many  causes,  indeed, 


138  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


for  the  failure  of  this  great  epoch  of  reform.  In 
some  things  Wang  showed  a lack  of  experience  in 
practical  statesmanship,  as,  for  example,  when  he 
abolished  all  restrictions  on  the  export  of  copper, 
with  the  result  that  “ even  the  copper  cash  were 
melted  down  and  made  into  articles  for  sale  and  ex- 
portation.” Wang  met  the  resultant  panic  with  the 
ingenious  plan  of  simply  doubling  the  value  of  each 
cash.  Again,  there  was  the  objection  of  the  people 
to  the  contemplated  militia,  the  antagonism  of  the 
usurers  who  were  largely  put  out  of  business,  the 
dishonesty  of  the  officials  who  collected  the  taxes  and 
distributed  the  seed,  the  opposition  of  powerful  and 
influential  statesmen,  such  as  Wang  An-shih’s  own 
brother,  Wang  An-kuo,  Han  Ch‘i,  Su  Shih,  and 
above  all,  the  great  rival,  Ssu-ma  Kuang.  Lastly, 
there  were  the  physical  calamities  of  drought  and 
flood  and  famine,  which  were  always  regarded  as  the 
results  of  bad  Government.  Wang  An-shih  left 
office  and  was  consoled  with  the  Governorship  of 
Nanking.  He  died  in  A.  D.  1086  without  seeing 
again  any  accession  of  popular  or  Imperial  favor. 
Twenty  years  after  his  death  his  name  was  set  up 
in  the  Hall  of  Confucius  as  that  of  the  greatest 
thinker  since  Mencius.  But  soon  afterward  it  was 
removed  and  since  that  time  his  memory  has  been 
belittled  and  his  reputation  aspersed.  A conserva- 
tive reaction  set  in ; the  radicals  were  banished  to 
Mongolia  and  there,  it  is  said,  their  unquiet  spirits 
had  something  to  do  with  the  conditions  which  made 
possible  the  devastating  career  of  Jenghiz  Khan.4 

Ssu-ma  Kuang.  A few  words  are  due  to  Wang 
An-shih’s  great  rival,  Ssu-ma  Kuang , who  lived  from 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 


139 


A.  D.  1019  to  1086.5  He  is  famous  alike  as  scholar, 
poet,  historian  and  statesman.  As  a student  he 
is  said  to  have  used  a wooden  pillow  which  was  so 
constructed  as  to  arouse  him  to  wakefulness  when- 
ever he  got  too  sleepy  over  his  work.  He  was  also 
famous  for  the  reverent  care  with  which  he  preserved 
his  books.  His  readiness  of  resource  in  these  early 
days  is  illustrated  by  the  following  story:  With 

a number  of  other  boys  he  was  standing  near  a large 
vase  used  for  the  keeping  of  gold-fish  when  one  of 
his  companions  fell  in.  The  others  were  unable  to 
reach  the  top  and  too  terrified  to  think  of  anything 
else,  when  Kuang  took  up  a big  stone  and  smashed 
the  vase.  So  he  enabled  the  water  to  run  out  and 
the  boy  to  escape.  As  a poet  Ssu-ma  Kuang  is 
remembered  for  his  “ Garden of  which  a delightful 
account  is  given  by  the  Abbe  Hue.  As  an  historian 
he  employed  the  years  of  his  exclusion  from  office 
(during  the  reform  government  of  Wang  An-shih) 
in  writing,  amongst  other  important  works,  the 
great  “ General  Mirror  to  aid  in  governing.”  Over 
twenty  years  altogether  was  devoted  to  this  work, 
which  was  finished  in  A.  D.  1084.  It  consists  of  two 
hundred  and  ninety-four  chapters  and  covers  the 
period  from  the  5th  Century  B.  C.  to  A.  D.  960.  As 
a statesman,  Ssu-ma  Kuang  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
a conservative.  He  offered  to  his  Emperor  the 
five  following  Rules  of  Conduct:  1,  Guard  your 

patrimony;  2,  Value  time;  3,  Keep  sedition  at  a 
distance ; 4,  Be  cautious  over  details ; 5,  Aim  at 
reality.  He  was  always  outspoken  and  frank. 
“ The  first  duty  of  a censor,”  he  said,  “ is  to  speak 
the  truth.”  When  some  flatterer  told  the  Emperor 


140  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


that  the  Ki-lin  (a  fabled  beast  whose  coming  was 
regarded  as  an  augury  of  prosperity)  had  appeared 
in  the  land,  the  gift  of  a foreign  potentate,  Ssu-ma 
Kuang  replied  that  the  Ki-lin  does  not  need  to  be 
sent  from  abroad,  seeing  that  it  appears  of  itself 
whenever  the  land  is  well  governed.  He  died  in 
A.  D.  1086,  the  same  year  in  which  passed  away 
his  illustrious  rival. 

The  Sung  Philosophers.  The  Sung  period,  in. 
spite  of  its  unsettled  political  condition,  has  always 
been  favorably  known  as  a period  of  speculative 
philosophy.  Five  men  are  especially  singled  out  as 
eminent  exponents  of  truth  as  the  Sung  age  under- 
stood it.  These  are  Chao,  the  two  Chengs,  Chang 
and  Chu.  Cheng  Ch‘iao  wrote  a history  of  China 
of  which  an  edition  in  forty-six  volumes  was  pub- 
lished in  1749  with  a preface  by  the  Emperor  Ch‘ien 
Lung.  He  also  wrote  an  authoritative  treatise  on 
the  famous  Stone  Drums.  Chu,  in  addition  to  his 
philosophical  disquisitions,  made  a digest  of  Li 
Tao’s  extension  of  the  history  of  Ssu-ma  Kuang, 
which  still  remains  an  admirable  summary  of  thirty- 
six  centuries  of  Chinese  history. 

The  Sung  Art.  The  art  of  the  Sung  period  was 
of  rare  excellence.  The  examples  which  have  come 
down  to  us  are  few  in  number  but  are  sufficient  to 
show  its  range  and  dominant  characteristics.  The 
most  recognizable  influence  is  Taoist  rather  than 
Buddhist  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  More 
accurately,  perhaps,  it  may  be  said  to  be  in  large 
part  the  reflection  of  the  Zen  sect  of  Buddhism  which 
had  been  “ powerfully  influenced  by  Lao  Tzu’s 
thought.”  “ Man  is  not  conceived  of  as  detached 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY 


141 


from,  or  opposed  to,  external  nature;  rather  is  the 
thought  of  one  life  or  one  soul  manifested  in  both, 
so  that  the  springing  and  withering  of  the  wayside 
grasses  are  felt  to  be  something  really  related  to  the 
human  spirit  contemplating  them,  and  the  appari- 
tion of  beauty  in  fresh  snow,  or  rising  moon,  or  blos- 
soms opening  on  bare  spring  branches,  seems  the 
manifestation  of  a life  and  power  in  which  men  also 
share.”  6 The  chief  painter  of  the  period  was  Li 
Lung-mien. 

It  is  sad  to  be  obliged  to  recognize  that  the  Sung 
era,  which  in  art  and  literature  and  philosophy 
reached  such  heights  as  to  be  fitly  termed  the  “ Peri- 
clean  Age  of  China,”  should  have  been  politically 
so  inglorious, — that  the  highest  achievements  in  the 
departments  of  intellect  and  culture  should  have 
synchronized  so  painfully  wTith  China’s  first  real  ex- 
perience of  foreign  domination.7  But  she  was  still 
destined,  by  her  intelligence,  to  conquer  the  brute 
force  of  her  conquerors. 


NOTES 


1.  See  Yule’s  “ Marco  Polo,”  for  Peking  (Camba- 
luc),  I 348  ff ; for  Hangchow  (Kin-say),  II  146-260. 

2.  For  the  life  of  Temuchin,  later  called  Jenghiz 
Khan,  see  Sir  Henry  Howorth,  “ History  of  the  Mon- 
gols”; Jeremiah  Curtin’s  “History  of  the  Mongols”; 
Sir.  R.  K.  Douglas’  “ Life  of  Jenghiz  Khan.” 

3.  D.  C.  Boulger,  “ History  of  China.” 

4.  See  Remusat,  “ Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques”; 
A.  I.  Ivanova,  “ Wang  An-shih  and  His  Reforms,”  S. 
Petersburg,  1909;  the  works  of  the  Abbe  Hue,  etc. 
“ Ouang  anche  a mon  avis  etoit  un  grand  ministre,  que 
les  Chinois,  attaches  trop  aveuglement  a leurs  anciens 
usages,  n’ont  pas  S£u  connoitre,  et  a qui  ils  ne  rendent 
pas  la  justice  qu’il  meritoit,”  Du  Mailla,  T.  VIII,  p. 
305. 

5.  See  Biography  by  Remusat  in  “ Nouveaux  Me- 
langes Asiatiques.” 

6.  “ British  Museum  Guide  to  Exhibition  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  Pictures,”  p.  12. 

7.  “ La  splendeur  des  lettres  semblait  croitre  en  in- 
tensity, a mesure  que  1’  Empire  perdait  de  sa  puissance 
materielle  et  de  son  etendue  ” (P.  St.  Le  Gall). 


142 


CHAPTER  XV 


THE  YUAN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY 
A.  D.  1260-1368. 

Kublai  Khan — Expeditions  to  Japan  — KublaVs 
magnificence  — the  successors  of  Kublai  — the  Chi- 
nese revolution  — Christian  missions  in  China  — the 
Drama  — the  Novel. 

Kublai  Khan.  A.  D.  1260-1294.  The  first  of 
the  Yuan  sovereigns  is  known  to  every  reader  from 
the  opening  lines  of  Coleridge’s  “ Vision  in  a Dream.” 

“ In  Xanadu  did  Kubla  Khan 
A stately  pleasure  house  decree; 

Where  Alph,  the  sacred  river,  ran 
Through  caverns  measureless  to  man, 

Down  to  a sunless  sea.” 

But  Coleridge  himself  would  never  have  had  the 
chance  to  read  of  Kublai  Khan  in  “ Purchas  his  Pil- 
grims ” had  not  the  great  Venetian  dictated  the  pas- 
sage with  which  Book  II  of  Marco  Polo  begins : 
“ Now  am  I come  to  that  part  of  our  Book  in  which 
I shall  tell  you  the  great  and  wonderful  magnificence 
of  the  Great  Kaan  now  reigning,  by  name  Cublay 
Kaan ; Kaan  being  a title  which  signifyeth  6 The 
Great  Lord  of  Lords,’  or  Emperor.  And  of  a 
surety  he  hath  good  right  to  such  a title,  for  all  men 
know  for  a certain  truth  that  he  is  the  most  potent 

man  as  regards  forces  and  lands,  and  treasure,  that 

143 


144  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


existeth  in  the  world  or  ever  hath  existed  from  the 
time  of  our  First  Father  Adam  until  this  day.  All 
this  I will  make  clear  to  you  for  truth,  in  this  book 
of  ours,  so  that  every  one  shall  be  fain  to  acknowl- 
edge that  he  is  the  greatest  Lord  that  is  now  in  the 
world,  or  ever  hath  been.  And  now  ye  shall  hear 
how  and  wherefore.” 

For  this  “ how  and  wherefore  ” it  is  always  a 
delight  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  great  traveler’s 
story,  which  did  more  than  anything  else  to  make 
Kublai  Khan,  and  even  Cathay  itself,  known  to  the 
Western  world.  A Carpini  and  a De  Rubruk  suc- 
ceeded in  interesting  only  a few,  and  these  for  the 
most  part  ecclesiastics.  Marco  Polo  not  only 
struck  the  imagination  of  his  own  time,  but  made 
the  glamour  of  Cathay  so  glorious  that  generations 
of  travelers  and  navigators  spent  their  lives  in  en- 
deavoring to  open  up  new  highways  to  the  Eastern 
wonderland.  From  the  time  of  Prince  Henry  of 
Portugal  onwards  to  the  voyages  of  Diaz,  Vasco  da 
Gama,  Columbus,  Cabot  and  the  rest,  the  desire  to 
recover  the  resplendent  vision  which  had  once 
flashed  before  the  eyes  of  Marco  Polo  and  his  uncles 
was  the  over-mastering  lure. 

Here  we  must  content  ourselves  with  a meager 
summary  in  keeping  with  that  sense  of  proportion 
we  have  hitherto  endeavored  to  preserve. 

The  greatness  of  Kublai,  who  was  the  fourth  son 
of  Tuli,  and  so  the  grandson  of  the  great  Jenghiz, 
had  been  long  before  predicted  by  his  grandfather: 
“ One  day,”  said  Jenghiz,  pointing  out  the  boy,  “ he 
will  sit  in  my  seat  and  bring  you  good  fortune.” 


THE  YUAN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY  145 


But  the  task  that  fell  to  him  on  his  accession  in  A.  D. 
1260,  so  far  as  China  was  concerned,  was  one  of  no 
mean  proportions.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the 
resistance  of  the  South  against  the  Mongol  arms  was 
kept  up  for  nearly  twenty  years.  The  outline  of 
the  history  of  this  period  is  something  as  follows: 
Appointed  by  his  brother  Mangu  as  Governor  of  the 
Chinese  provinces,  Kublai  had  acquired  such  pop- 
ularity that  in  A.  D.  1257  he  had  been  recalled. 
On  his  brother’s  death  he  at  once  hastened  to  the 
capital  and  was  proclaimed  Emperor  in  A.  D.  1260. 
After  overcoming  conspiracy  in  Samarcand  he  re- 
sumed the  conquest  of  China  in  A.  D.  1262.  His 
great  general,  Bay  an,  crossed  the  Yangtse  Kiang 
and  carried  on  a victorious  campaign  which  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  Hangchow  in  A.  D.  1276.  Two 
years  later  the  last  of  the  Sung  pretenders  died  and 
Kublai’s  hold  over  the  whole  of  China  was  estab- 
lished. The  dynastic  name  of  Yuan  was  assumed 
in  A.  D.  1271.  By  A.  D.  1279  or  1280  Kublai  could 
not  only  call  himself  Emperor  but  he  was  in  reality 
much  more, — Master  “from  the  Frozen  Sea  to  the 
Straits  of  Malacca.  With  the  exception  of  Hin- 
dustan, Arabia,  and  the  westernmost  parts  of  Asia, 
all  the  Mongol  princes  as  far  as  the  Dnieper  de- 
clared themselves  his  vassals,  and  brought  regularly 
their  tribute.” 

It  is  unfortunate  that  Kublai  in  his  day  of  power 
did  not  have  the  generosity  to  forgive  the  great  hero 
and  scholar,  Wen  T‘ien-hsiang,  whose  death  was 
briefly  alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter.  For  three 
years  the  faithful  minister  of  a fallen  dynasty  was 


146  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


kept  in  durance  in  the  hope  that  he  would  yield  al- 
legiance to  his  conqueror.  In  prison  he  wrote  a 
pathetic  poem  of  which  some  lines  run  as  follows : 

“Alas!  the  fates  are  against  me, 

I am  without  resource. 

Bound  with  fetters, 

Hurried  awTay  to  the  north, — 

Death  would  be  sweet  indeed.” 

That  wished-for  boon  was  for  long  refused.  At 
last  he  wras  brought  before  the  Great  Khan  and,  to 
the  final  demand  that  he  should  yield  allegiance,  he 
replied : “ By  the  grace  of  the  Sung  Emperor  I 
became  a minister.  I cannot  serve  two  masters.  I 
only  ask  to  die.”  He  wras  then  executed,  making 
his  obeisance  towards  the  south , as  though  a Chinese 
sovereign  was  still  reigning  at  Nanking. 

The  Expeditions  to  Japan.  Only  one  country 
successfully  resisted  the  arms  of  Kublai  Khan. 
This  was  Japan,  or  as  Marco  Polo  calls  it,  Chi- 
pangu.  From  A.  D.  1268  to  127 3 Kublai  Khan 
sent  as  many  as  five  different  embassies  from  China 
to  Japan,  each  accompanied  by  a Korean  repre- 
sentative. In  each  case  he  assumed  the  right  to 
overlordship,  addressing  the  letter : “ The  Em- 

peror (Huang  Ti)  of  China  to  the  King  (Wang)  of 
Japan.”  The  first  expedition,  consisting  of  15,000 
men  in  300  vessels,  was  sent  in  A.  D.  1274  and  was 
defeated  with  great  loss  near  the  island  of  Tsushima. 
Kublai  sent  other  envoys  in  A.  D.  1275  who  were 
taken  to  the  capital  of  Japan  and  executed.  Others 
followed  in  A.  D.  1279  and  these  were  beheaded 
where  they  landed.  Then  came  the  great  Armada 


THE  YUAN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY  147 


of  A.  D.  1281  which  is  so  vividly  described  by  the 
Venetian  traveler. 

“ C'ublay,  having  heard  of  the  immense  wealth 
that  was  in  this  island,  formed  a plan  to  get  pos- 
session of  it.  They  sailed  until  they  reached  the 
island  aforesaid,  and  there  they  landed,  and  occu- 
pied the  open  country  and  the  villages,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  getting  possession  of  any  city  or  cas- 
tle. And  so  a disaster  befel  them,  as  I shall  now 
relate.  You  must  know  that  there  was  much  ill-will 
between  those  two  Barons,  so  that  one  would  do 
nothing  to  help  the  other.  And  it  came  to  pass  that 
there  arose  a north  wind  which  blew  with  great  fury, 
and  caused  great  damage  along  the  coasts  of  that 
island,  for  its  harbors  were  few.  It  blew  so  hard 
that  the  Great  Kaan’s  fleet  could  not  stand  against 
it.  And  when  the  chiefs  saw  that  they  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  if  the  ships  remained  where  they 
were  the  whole  navy  would  perish.  So  they  all  got 
on  board  and  made  sail  to  leave  the  country.  But 
when  they  had  gone  about  four  miles  they  came  to  a 
small  island  on  which  they  were  driven  ashore  in  spite 
of  all  they  could  do ; and  a large  part  of  the  fleet 
was  wrecked,  and  a great  multitude  of  the  force  per- 
ished, so  that  there  escaped  only  some  30,000  men 
who  took  refuge  on  this  island.”  1 

These  30,000  were  taken  prisoners  and  put  to 
death  with  the  exception  of  three  men,  who  were  sent 
back  to  China  to  carry  the  news.  Kublai  Khan  was 
unwilling  to  admit  defeat,  but  the  feeling  was  so 
strong  in  China  against  a renewal  of  the  war  that  he 
had  to  submit.  The  truth,  as  Mr.  Boulger  says, 
was  — “ The  Mongols  were  vanquished  because  they 


148  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


undertook  a task  beyond  their  power  and  one  with 
which  their  military  experience  did  not  fit  them  to 
cope.” 

Some  compensation  for  the  repulse  in  Japan  was 
found  in  the  temporary  success  in  Burmah,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  failure  to  subdue  the  East- 
ern Archipelago  rankled  sorely  to  the  end  in  the 
heart  of  the  Great  Khan. 

Kublai’s  Magnificence.  Kublai  Khan  built 
himself  a new  capital,  close  to  Changtu,  which  he 
called  Khan-baligh  (known  to  Europeans  as  Cam- 
baluc).  Later  it  received  its  present  name  of  Pe- 
king, or  Northern  Capital.  Of  the  magnificence  and 
munificence  of  the  Great  Khan  there  was  no  end. 
Time  would  fail  to  tell  of  his  manifold  interest  in  the 
arts  and  in  literature,  of  the  attempt  to  introduce 
the  Mongol  alphabet,  constructed  by  a Tibetan 
priest,  of  his  great  work  in  the  deepening  and  ex- 
tending of  the  Grand  Canal,  of  his  lavish  entertain- 
ment of  the  foreign  envoys  and  missionaries,  and  of 
his  stupendous  hunting  expeditions.  His  patronage 
of  the  various  religious  systems  brought  to  his  notice 
was  doubtless  dictated  by  policy  rather  than  by 
conviction.  He  hoped,  as  he  expressed  it,  that  if  he 
leaned  towards  them  all,  the  one  which  was  greatest 
would  be  of  some  advantage  to  him  hereafter.  Yet, 
in  spite  of  all  his  Solomonic  glory,  in  the  reign  of 
Kublai  Khan,  even  in  his  own  day,  we  discern  the 
seeds  of  eventual  failure.  The  lavish  manufacture 
and  use  of  paper  money,  which  had  been  first  intro- 
duced and  used  by  the  Mongols  in  A.  D.  1236,  did 
perhaps  more  than  anything  else  to  breed  dissatis- 
faction in  the  present  and  make  inevitable  catastro- 


KUBLAI  KHAN  GOING  TO  BATTLE 


THE  YUAN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY  149 


phe  for  the  future.  Moreover,  a “ barbarian  ” the 
Great  Khan  remained  to  the  last  in  the  estimation 
of  the  literati  of  China.  They  had  some  reason,  for 
all  Chinese  in  A.  D.  1286  were  forbidden  to  bear 
arms,  and  three  years  later  a great  holocaust  was 
made  of  all  their  bows  and  arrows.  The  attempted 
introduction  of  the  Mongol  written  character  was 
also  strongly  resented.  So  when  Kublai  died,  a some- 
what morose  and  tyrannical  old  man,  in  A.  D.  1294, 
he  had  not  succeeded  in  winning  the  confidence  of  the 
nation  which  he  had  subdued.  His  last  years  were 
clouded  by  the  war  against  his  cousin  Kaidu,  who, 
after  winning  over  the  general,  Nayan,  rose  in  re- 
bellion. Nay  an  was  defeated  and  beaten  to  death, 
after  the  Mongol  fashion,  in  a sack  to  avoid  the 
effusion  of  blood.  The  war,  however,  was  still  pro- 
ceeding when  Kublai’s  reign  of  thirty-five  years  came 
to  an  end.  Kaidu  continued  the  contest  under  the 
succeeding  reign  but  died  in  A.  D.  1301. 

The  Successors  of  Kublai.  A few  words  are 
sufficient  in  which  to  sum  up  the  reigns  of  the  eight 
Mongol  Emperors  who  succeeded  Kublai  Khan. 
Timur , his  grandson,  was  the  first  and  reigned  till 
A.  D.  1307,  under  the  name  of  Ch‘eng  Tsung.  He, 
dying  without  an  heir,  was  followed  by  a Mongol 
prince,  Wu  Tsung , and  Wu  Tsung,  in  A.  D.  1312  by 
Jen  Tsung.  Jen  Tsung  honored  the  name  of  Con- 
fucius and  did  his  best  to  bridge  over  the  gulf  be- 
tween Mongol  and  Chinese.  He  ended  a prosperous 
reign  in  A.  D.  1320.  Then  followed  weak  and  in- 
capable rulers  who  gradually  exposed  to  Chinese  eyes 
the  weakness  of  their  conquerors.  The  last  of  these 
was  Shun  Ti , who  in  A.  D.  1368  turned  his  back 


150  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


upon  the  rebels  led  by  the  ex-Buddhist  priest,  Chu 
Yuan-chang,  and  completed  the  humiliation  of  the 
descendants  of  Jenghiz  Khan. 

The  Revolution.  The  country  was  evidently 
ripe  for  revolt,  for  its  leader,  who  had  been  a priest 
of  subordinate  rank  in  a Buddhist  monastery,  seems 
to  have  had  little  conception  of  the  greatness  of  the 
movement  he  was  heading.  A priest  turned  bandit 
and  so,  rising  to  the  leadership  of  the  numerous  guer- 
rilla bands  that  were  organized  to  worry  the  Mongol 
government,  “ the  Beggar  King  ” was  made  great  by 
his  opportunity.  The  capture  of  the  Southern  Cap- 
ital, Nanking,  gave  the  rebels  a vantage  point  from 
which  to  continue  the  war,  and  by  A.  D.  1368  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Mongols  was  so  far  a fact  that  Chang, 
much  to  his  own  astonishment,  found  himself  Em- 
peror of  China  and  founder  of  a dynasty.  Years 
before  he  had  had  a wonderful  dream  of  a pilgrimage 
to  the  holy  mountain  of  Hwa.  Now  his  dream  was 
fulfilled  to  the  letter  and  some  time  after  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne  he  visited  the  mountain  and  found 
all  exactly  as  he  had  dreamed.  The  dream,  a kind 
of  oriental  “ Pilgrim’s  Progress,”  is  depicted  in  a 
tablet  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.2 

Christian  Missions  in  China.  The  period  of 
the  Yuan  dynasty  was  favorable  to  intercourse  with 
Europeans.  Remusat  says  of  this  time : “ Many 

monks,  Italians,  French,  Flemings,  were  charged 
with  diplomatic  missions  to  the  Grand  Khan.  Mon- 
gols of  distinction  came  to  Rome,  Barcelona,  Valen- 
cia, Lyons,  Paris,  London,  Northampton,  and  a 
Franciscan  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  was  Arch- 
bishop of  Peking.”  This  last  was  the  famous  John 


THE  YUAN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY  151 


de  Monte  Corvino,  sent  in  A.  D.  1292  by  Pope  Nicho- 
las IV.  He  had  followed  the  earlier  Franciscan  mis- 
sionaries, Carpini  and  De  Rubruk,  and  had  been 
appointed  Archbishop  with  four  Suffragans  by  Pope 
Clement  V.3  His  labors  in  China  extended  over 
forty-two  years,  during  which  time  he  made  30,000 
converts,  translated  the  New  Testament  and  the 
Psalms  into  Tatar,  and  caused  many  pictures  of  re- 
ligious subjects  to  be  painted  for  the  churches. 
When  he  died,  in  A.  D.  1328,  he  was  followed  to  the 
grave  by  a vast  multitude  of  Christians  and  pagans 
alike.  “ All  the  inhabitants  of  Cambaluc,  without 
distinction,  mourned  for  the  man  of  God.”  It  seems 
probable  that  many  of  the  old  Nestorian  missions 
coalesced  with  those  founded  at  this  time  and  that 
the  Christian  population  was  quite  considerable. 
Much  of  the  work,  howTever,  stopped  with  the  fall  of 
the  dynasty,  and  it  seems  probable  that  many  of  the 
Christians  followed  the  Mongol  retreat  to  their  own 
land.  Altogether  the  harvest  was  less  than  had  been 
expected  in  Europe  and  the  Mongol  did  not  become, 
as  had  been  hoped,  the  champion  of  Christendom 
against  the  still  growing  power  of  Islam. 

The  Drama.  The  drama  was  not,  apparently, 
native  to  China  and  was  probably  introduced  from 
Central  Asia.  But  the  T‘ang  Emperor,  Hsiian 
Tsung,  is  said,  as  early  as  A.  D.  713,  to  have  gath- 
ered around  him  a numerous  company  of  male  and 
female  actors  and  singers  whom  he  called  “ The 
Young  Folks  of  the  Pear  Garden a title  still  borne 
by  Chinese  actors.  About  A.  D.  1000  Yen  Shih  is 
spoken  of  as  the  inventor  of  marionette  plays,  and 
in  the  following  century  plays  are  more  than  once 


152  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


mentioned.  It  is,  however,  due  specially  to  the  Mon- 
gol dynasty  that  the  Drama  (as  also  the  Novel) 
appears  as  a distinct  feature  of  Chinese  literature. 
“ The  Hundred  Plays  of  the  Yiian  Dynasty  ” include 
“ The  Orphan  of  Chon  ” which  Voltaire  used,  from 
the  translation  of  Pere  Premare,  as  the  material  for 
a tragedy,  and  “ The  Sorrows  of  Han”  an  historical 
drama  of  genuine  merit  and  interest.  A large  pro- 
portion of  these  plays  are  anonymous,  and  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  Drama  was  not  regarded,  strictly 
speaking,  as  literature.  Professor  Giles  says  the 
play  which  will  best  repay  the  reading  is  “ The  Story 
of  the  Western  Pavilion a drama  of  passion  and 
intrigue  in  sixteen  scenes.4 

The  Novel.  This  also  is  of  exotic  origin,  intro- 
duced with  the  Mongols  themselves  from  Central 
Asia.  From  “ The  Story  of  the  Three  Kingdoms 
a novel  of  this  time,  comes  the  following  quotation, 
■which  seems  to  show  a knowledge  of  the  use  of  anaes- 
thetics at  a much  earlier  period  than  has  generally 
been  supposed: 

“ Dr.  Hua  is  a mighty  skillful  physician,  and  such* 
a one  as  is  not  often  to  be  found.  His  administra- 
tion of  drugs,  and  his  use  of  acupuncture  and  coun- 
ter irritants  are  always  followed  by  the  speedy 
recovery  of  the  patient.  If  the  sick  man  is  suffering 
from  some  internal  complaint  and  medicines  produce 
no  satisfactory  result,  then  Dr.  Hua  will  administer 
a dose  of  hashish,  under  the  influence  of  which  the 
patient  becomes  as  if  intoxicated  with  wine.  He  now 
takes  a sharp  knife  and  opens  the  abdomen,  proceed- 
ing to  wash  the  patient’s  viscera  with  medicinal  liq- 
uids, but  without  causing  him  the  slightest  pain. 


THE  YUAN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY  153 


The  washing  finished,  he  sews  up  the  wound  with 
medicated  thread,  and  puts  over  it  a plaster,  and  by 
the  end  of  a month  or  twenty  days  the  place  has 
healed  up.”  5 

“ The  Record  of  Travels  in  the  West  ” is  an- 
other interesting  novel  of  the  time,  founded  upon  the 
pilgrimage,  already  mentioned,  of  the  great  Buddhist 
monk,  Hiouen  Tsang. 


NOTES 


1.  Yule’s  “ Marco  Polo/’  II  p.  2 55.  A Japanese 
account  (somewhat  imaginative)  of  the  Expedition  is 
given  in  the  “ Taiheiki  ” of  Kojima  (died  A.  D.  1374). 
It  is  quoted  in  Aston’s  “ Japanese  Literature/’  pp.  178- 
183. 

2.  “ Through  Hidden  Shensi/’  Francis  Nichols. 

3.  In  1275  Bar  Sauma,  a Nestorian  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Peking  was  sent  west  by  Arghun  Khan  to  interview 
the  Pope.  In  Rome  he  was  allowed  to  celebrate  mass 
and  Edward  I of  England  likewise  received  Holy  Com- 
munion from  him  in  Gascony. 

4.  Some  interesting  translations  of  the  Chinese 
drama  (e.g.  “ Borrowing  Boots  ”)  are  given  in  the 
“ Gleanings  of  Fifty  Years  in  China/’  by  Archibald 
Little. 

5.  Giles,  “ History  of  Chinese  Literature,”  p.  278. 


154 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  MING  DYNASTY 
A.  D.  1368-1644, 

Hung  Wu  and  his  successors  — arrival  of  the 
Portuguese  — Japanese  invasion $ — the  Jesuits  — 
the  Manchu  invasion  — the  last  of  the  Mings. 

Hung  Wu.  A.  D.  1368-1398.  Chu  Yiian-chang, 
having  been  once  persuaded  to  accept  the  Yellow 
Robe,  made  no  secret  of  his  desire  and  determination 
to  bring  back  the  good  old  days  of  Yao  and  Shun. 
“ The  Beggar  King,”  as  he  is  sometimes  called,  had 
been  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  and,  through  the 
advice  given  in  a vision  by  his  dead  parents,  had 
entered  a Buddhist  monastery.  From  this  he 
emerged,  as  we  have  seen,  to  join  the  ranks  of  the 
patriots  who,  under  the  leadership  of  Kuo  Tzu-hsing, 
his  maternal  uncle,  were  beginning  to  make  headway 
against  the  Mongol  domination.  The  leader  died 
soon  after  and  committed  the  command  of  the  insur- 
rection to  the  ex-monk,  whose  success  was  rapid  and 
complete.  The  new  dynasty  was  proclaimed  under 
the  name  of  Mingy  or  “ Bright and  the  new  sov- 
ereign chose  for  himself  the  throne  name  of  T‘ai  Tsu, 
though  he  is  more  familiarly  known  as  Hung  Wuy  or 
“ Great  Warrior .”  Justifying  his  name,  he  followed 
the  defeated  Mongols  into  Tatary,  reconquered  the 

Liaotung  peninsula,  and  established  himself  in  Nan- 

155 


156  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


king,  the  capital  of  the  South.  The  war  continued 
for  some  time  under  the  conduct  of  his  generals, 
among  whom  Suta  especially  deserves  to  be  named. 
One  incident  in  the  war,  moreever,  brings  to  light  the 
name  of  a real  hero,  Yu-kwang,  who  has  right  to  his 
meed  of  praise.  This  general,  having  been  captured 
by  the  Mongols,  was  led  around  the  walls  of  Lanchifu 
in  order  that  he  might  urge  submission.  Instead,  he 
cried  aloud,  44  Be  of  good  courage ; Suta  is  on  his  way 
to  help  you.”  Then  he  was  cut  in  pieces  by  his  cap- 
tors  and  died,  conscious  of  having  saved  the  city  from 
surrender.  Meanwhile  Hung  Wu  received  at  Nan- 
king envoys  from  many  lands  with  presents  and  many 
flattering  letters.  Among  the  presents  was  a lion, 
the  first,  it  is  said,  that  had  been  seen  in  China.  The 
last  Mongol  claimant  to  the  throne  of  China  died  at 
Karakorum  in  A.  D.  1370  and,  though  invasions  were 
not  infrequent  for  many  years,  all  hope  of  restoring 
the  old  dominion  was  abandoned.  Hung  Wu  set 
himself  vigorously  to  work  to  restore  everything  that 
was  Chinese.  He  compelled  the  use  of  the  Chinese 
dress,  performed  personally  the  annual  ceremonial 
plowing,  and  caused  the  Empress  to  offer  the  annual 
sacrifice  to  the  spirit  of  the  mulberry  trees.  He  also 
reestablished  the  public  schools  and  libraries  and  en- 
couraged the  arts  and  industries.  One  of  the  most 
important  of  his  achievements  was  the  compilation  of 
the  Law  Code,  known  as  the  Pandects  of  Yung-lu , 
44  which  not  merely  simplified  the  administration  of 
the  law,  but  also  gave  the  people  some  idea  of  the  laws 
under  which  they  lived.”  In  all  this  he  succeeded 
in  preserving  his  early  simplicity  and  modesty,  and 
several  stories  are  told  of  rebukes  administered  to 


THE  MING  DYNASTY  157 

would-be  flatterers  which  are  as  deserving  of  remem- 
brance as  the  answer  of  Canute  to  his  courtiers  at 
the  sea-side.  On  one  occasion  some  of  the  grandees 
brought  him  some  stalks  of  wheat  which  showed  an 
extraordinary  yield.  This  they  presented  as  a proof 
of  the  wonderful  virtue  of  Hung  Wu’s  rule.  The 
Emperor  responded  that  he  did  verily  desire  to  see 
the  time  when  all  his  subjects  would  enjoy  peace  and 
prosperity,  but  that,  nevertheless,  he  was  not  vain 
enough  to  suppose  that  Heaven  had  done  anything 
so  unusual  on  his  own  account.  On  another  occasion 
some  Taoist  priests  came  to  him  bringing  a book 
which  they  declared  contained  the  recipe  for  the  fa- 
mous “ Water  of  Immortality.”  The  Emperor  in- 
quired whether  the  book  and  its  secret  availed  for 
everybody  or  for  himself  alone.  “ It  is  only  for 
your  Majesty’s  own  use,”  they  replied.  66  That  be- 
ing so,”  answered  Hung  Wu,  “ it  is  of  no  use  to  me, 
seeing  that  I will  not  profit  by  anything  in  which  my 
people  may  not  participate.”  In  line  with  this  dis- 
interestedness is  the  story  of  the  Emperor’s  having 
sent  fur  coats  to  his  soldiers  for  their  winter  cam- 
paign, his  instructions  to  officials  proceeding  to  their 
posts  to  take  particular  care  of  the  aged  and  the 
orphan,  and  the  choice  of  his  grandson  as  the  most 
fitting  successor  rather  than  any  of  his  sons.  Nat- 
urally, from  his  old  association  with  the  bonzes,  he 
favored  Buddhism,  but  he  seems  also  to  have  been 
fair  to  other  creeds.  The  thirty  years’  reign  which 
came  to  an  end  in  A.  D.  1398  was  on  the  whole  a very 
prosperous  one  and  presents  a striking  contrast  to 
the  contemporary  career  of  the  great  conqueror,  Ti- 
mur, or  Tamerlane. 


158  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Hung  Wu’s  Successors.  The  succession  de- 
volved, as  we  have  seen,  upon  the  grandson  of  Hung 
Wu,  Chu  Yiin-wen , to  the  exclusion  of  the  sons. 
Chu  Y (in-wen,  who  ascended  the  throne  as  Hui  Ti, 
A.  D.  1398—1403,  was  a youth  of  sixteen  and  his  in- 
experience soon  tempted  a revolt  which  was  headed 
by  one  of  his  uncles,  Hung  Wu’s  fourth  son,  known 
as  the  Prince  of  Yen.  The  other  uncles  were  de- 
graded and  one  of  them  committed  suicide,  but  the 
revolt,  nevertheless,  continued  to  spread,  and  soon 
attained  alarming  proportions.  One  of  the  royal 
generals  was  most  fertile  in  resources  for  defending 
his  city,  dropping  iron  harrows  on  the  heads  of  the 
assailants  and  hanging  out  numerous  pictures  of 
Hung  Wu  from  the  battlements  in  the  belief  that  the 
Prince  of  Yen  would  respect  his  father’s  portrait. 
But  eventually  Nanking  was  captured,  the  victor  es- 
tablished himself  on  the  throne  as  Ch‘ eng  Tsu  (reign 
title  Yung  Le),  (A.  D.  1403—1425),  and  Hui  Ti, 
disguised  as  a monk,  fled  to  Yunnan  where  he  lived 
for  forty  years  much  more  happily  than  he  had  done 
as  Emperor.  His  identity  was  revealed  at  last 
through  the  publication  of  a poem  and  he  was  re- 
moved to  Peking  where  he  died.  The  new  ruler,  in 
spite  of  some  outbursts  of  atrocious  cruelty  at  the 
beginning  of  his  reign,  proved  a capable  sovereign. 
He  made  Peking  once  again  the  capital,  carried  his 
victorious  arms  far  into  the  deserts  of  Tatary,  and 
added  to  his  dominions  Cochin  China  and  Tongking. 
Probably  by  way  of  reaction  against  the  extreme  de- 
votion of  his  predecessors,  he  renewed  the  proscrip- 
tion of  Buddhism  and  sent  many  hundreds  of  priests 
back  to  their  homes.  He  also  burned  the  books  of 


THE  MING  DYNASTY 


159 


the  Taoists  and  forbade  any  further  search  for  the 
Elixir  Vitce.  Notwithstanding  his  destruction  of  the 
books  he  was  a patron  of  literature  and  produced  the 
“ most  gigantic  encyclopedia  ” ever  known,  a work 
which  took  over  2,000  scholars  for  its  compilation, 
and  ran  probably  to  500,000  pages.  It  was  never 
printed,  but  two  extra  copies  were  made.  Of  the 
three  transcripts  of  this  great  work,  two  perished 
at  the  fall  of  the  Ming  Dynasty  and  the  third  at 
the  burning  of  the  Hanlin  College  on  June  23rd, 
1900,  during  the  Boxer  Revolt.  Like  Hung  Wu, 
Yung  Le  received  envoys  and  tribute  from  afar,  in- 
cluding a rhinoceros  from  Bengal.  But  he  can 
hardly  have  appreciated  as  much  as  most  the  luxury 
and  wealth  which  his  elevation  to  the  throne  brought 
within  his  reach,  if  the  story  be  true  that  he  discour- 
aged the  opening  of  newly  discovered  mines  of  pre- 
cious stones  in  Shansi.  “ For,”  said  he,  “ such 
things  as  these  can  neither  nourish  the  people  in  time 
of  famine,  nor  preserve  them  from  the  rigors  of 
cold.” 

Yung  Le  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jen  Tsung 
(reign  name  Hung  Hi)  (A.  D.  1425—1426),  who, 
however,  only  reigned  a few  months.  He  died,  it  is 
said,  as  the  result  of  superstitious  terror  when  he 
learned  that  the  stars  were  unfavorable.  His  short 
reign  is  only  dignified  by  his  recorded  response  to  the 
ministers,  when  a famine  was  being  severely  felt. 
They  advised  him  that  it  was  impossible  to  act  with- 
out having  recourse  to  the  high  tribunals.  “ No  de- 
liberations ; and  no  delays ! ” he  cried.  “ When  the 
people  are  dying  of  hunger  one  must  relieve  them  as 
promptly  as  if  it  were  a case  of  putting  out  a fire 


160  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


or  stopping  a flood.”  Hsiian  Tsung , A.  D.  1426- 
1436,  is  remarkable  for  nothing  but  for  the  Ha- 
roun-al-raschid-like  habit  of  wandering  disguised 
among  the  people  to  learn  their  condition,  and  for 
the  loss  of  Cochin  China  which,  in  the  year  1428, 
passed  from  the  rank  of  a province  to  the  category 
of  tribute-bearing  countries.  He  was,  however,  a 
well-meaning  monarch,  lightened  taxes,  established 
custom-houses  and  encouraged  the  schools. 

Ying  Tsung,  A.  D.  1436—1465,  reigned  with  an 
interruption  of  seven  years,  during  which  time  he 
was  a prisoner  among  the  Tatars.  A descendant  of 
the  old  Yuan  family  captured  and  held  him  in  spite 
of  all  offers  of  ransom.  During  his  absence  the 
throne  was  occupied  by  a brother,  Ching  Ti , A.  D. 
1450-1457. 

Hsien  Tsung,  A.  D.  1465-1488,  and  Hsiao  Tsung , 
A.  D.  1488-1506,  reigned  with  comparative  quiet, 
devoted  to  the  bonzes  and  even  to  the  superstitions 
of  the  Taoists.  Much  public  work  was  attempted 
at  this  time.  Half  a million  men  were  employed  in 
working  certain  gold  mines  in  Central  China,  al- 
though the  yield  must  have  been  disappointing  if 
the  total  is  rightly  given  as  thirty  ounces.  The 
Great  Wall  was  repaired  and  a canal  dug  from  Pe- 
king to  the  Peiho  to  enable  the  junks  to  pass  from 
the  Yangtse  Kiang  to  the  capital.  Unfortunately, 
however,  the  realm  was  more  than  once  desolated  by 
famine  and  pestilence,  and  cannibalism  is  said  to 
have  become  rife  in  the  west. 

Arrival  of  the  Portuguese.  The  reign  of  Wu 
Tsung  (reign  name  Cheng  Te),  A.  D.  1506-1522, 
is  notable  on  account  of  the  first  arrival  of  Euro- 


THE  MING  DYNASTY 


161 


peans  by  sea  to  Canton.  “ During  the  reign  of 
Ching-tih,”  says  a Chinese  work  quoted  by  Dr.  S. 
Wells  Williams,1  “ foreigners  from  the  West,  called 
Fah-lan-ki  (Franks),  who  said  that  they  had  tribute, 
abruptly  entered  the  Bogue,  and,  by  their  tremen- 
dously loud  guns,  shook  the  place  far  and  near. 
This  was  reported  at  Court  and  an  order  returned 
to  drive  them  away  immediately  and  stop  their  trade. 
At  about  this  time,  also,  the  Hollanders,  who  in  an- 
cient times  inhabited  a wild  territory  and  had  no  in- 
tercourse with  China,  came  to  Macao  in  two  or  three 
large  ships.  Their  clothes  and  their  hair  were  red ; 
their  bodies  tall;  they  had  blue  eyes  sunk  deep  in 
their  heads.  Their  feet  were  one  cubit  and  two- 
tenths  long;  and  they  frightened  the  people  by  their 
strange  appearance.” 

Raphael  Perestrello  was  the  first  Portuguese  to 
arrive,  sailing  from  Malacca  in  A.  D.  1516.  The 
following  year  came  Ferdinand  d’Andrade  with  a 
squadron  to  Canton  and  was  well  received.  The 
trouble  came  with  the  arrival  of  his  brother  Simon 
and  the  commission  of  many  high-handed  acts  of 
outrage.  Dr.  Andrade  was  thereupon  imprisoned 
and  executed  by  the  Emperor’s  orders  in  A.  D.  1523. 
Factories  and  settlements,  however,  were  established 
at  Canton,  Ningpo,  and  Macao,  which  soon  became 
the  headquarters  of  the  Portuguese  trade  with  China. 

Japanese  Invasions.  Cheng  Te  was  succeeded 
by  Shih  Tsung , A.D.  1522—1567,  whose  reign  was 
disturbed  not  only  by  invasions  from  the  north  on 
the  part  of  the  Tatars,  but  also  from  a new  quarter, 
viz:  Japan.  The  raids  by  the  Japanese  pirates  in 
this  reign  began  to  be  quite  serious.  Hitherto  the 


162  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


inhabitants  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  when  they 
came  at  all,  came  as  vassals ; now,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  great  warriors  of  the  Momoyama  period, 
they  not  only  considered  themselves  independent,  but 
pined  for  new  worlds  to  conquer.  For  three  suc- 
cessive years,  A.  D.  1555,  1556  and  1557,  they  made 
descents  upon  the  coast  of  Chehkiang  with  varying 
degrees  of  success.  Twenty-five  years  later,  in  the 
time  of  the  famous  Hideyoshi,  a much  more  deliber- 
ate and  formidable  attack  was  made.  The  Taiko- 
sama  had  long  meditated  the  conquest  of  Korea,  to 
which  Japan  asserted  claims  of  long  standing,  and 
he  was  prepared  to  extend  the  reach  of  his  ambition 
to  China.  In  a letter  written  to  the  ruler  of  Korea 
“ as  a father  to  a son,”  Hideyoshi  said : “ I will 

assemble  a hightv  host  and,  invading  the  country  of 
the  great  Ming,  I will  fill  with  the  hoar  frost  from 
my  sword  the  whole  sky  of  the  four  hundred  prov- 
inces. Should  I carry  out  this  purpose,  I hope  that 
Korea  will  be  my  vanguard.  Let  her  not  fail  to  do 
so,  for  my  friendship  with  your  honorable  country 
depends  solely  on  your  conduct  when  I lead  my  army 
against  China.”  The  Koreans,  with  a more  ade- 
quate knowledge  of  the  resources  of  the  Middle 
Kingdom,  replied  that  for  Hideyoshi  to  contemplate 
the  invasion  of  China  was  like  “ measuring  the  ocean 
in  a cockle  shell,  or  a bee  trying  to  sting  a tortoise 
through  its  shell.”  Hideyoshi,  however,  was  in  on 
wise  dismayed.  “ I shall  do  it,”  he  said,  “ as  easily 
as  a man  rolls  up  a piece  of  matting  and  carries  it 
under  his  arm.”  Two  armies,  one  of  them  com- 
manded by  a famous  Christian  general,  Konishi  Yu- 
shinaga,  were  dispatched  and  ravaged  Korea  with 


THE  MING  DYNASTY 


163 


fire  and  sword.  Appeals  to  China  led  to  the  send- 
ing of  a small  force  which  was  easily  defeated  by  the 
Japanese  at  Pingshang.  Some  futile  negotiations 
for  peace,  in  which  the  Japanese  were  outwitted  by 
the  Chinese  diplomatists,  followed,  and  the  war  was 
renewed  in  A.  D.  1597.  A great  battle  was  fought 
in  A.  D.  1598  in  which  38,700  Chinese  and  Koreans 
are  said  to  have  been  slain.  The  ears  and  noses  wrere 
pickled  in  tubs  and  sent  back  to  Kyoto,  where  they 
were  buried  in  a mound  near  the  great  image  of  the 
Buddha.  The  gruesome  monument  erected  on  the 
spot,  together  with  the  mimizuka , or  ear  mound,  as 
it  is  termed,  remain  to  the  present  day  and  represent 
practically  all  that  Hideyoshi  got  out  of  his  cam- 
paigns. Sense  of  failure  wreighed  upon  the  great 
soldier  at  the  last.  He  died  writh  the  words  upon  his 
lips,  “ Don’t  let  my  soldiers  become  ghosts  in  Ko- 
rea.” 

Meanwhile  the  throne  of  China  had  passed  from 
Shih  Tsung  to  Mu  Tsung  in  A.  D.  1567  and  from 
Mu  Tsung  to  Slien  Tsung , better  known  by  his 
throne  name  Wan  Li,  in  A.  D.  1573.  While  the  lat- 
ter was  trying  to  deal  in  a feeble  way  with  the  Jap- 
anese menace  in  Korea,  he  wras  also  endeavoring  to 
placate  the  Tatar  generals  in  the  North  with  the  gift 
of  lands  and  honors. 

The  Jesuits. — Probably  the  most  important 
event  in  the  reign  of  Wan  Li  wras  the  arrival  of  the 
famous  Jesuit,  Matteo  Ricci.  For  some  years  the 
disciples  of  Loyola  had  cast  longing  eyes  upon  the 
Middle  Kingdom.  Francis  Xavier,  foiled  in  his  at- 
tempts to  set  foot  in  the  heart  of  the  country,  suc- 
cumbed to  fever  on  the  little  island  of  Sancian  on 


1 64  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Dec.  2,  A.  D.  1552.  Thirty  years  later,  Valignani 
mournfully  exclaimed,  44  0 mighty  fortress,  when 
shall  these  impenetrable  brazen  gates  of  thine  be 
broken  open?”  It  was  reserved  for  Ricci  in  A.  D. 
1582  to  learn  the  way  to  remain  in  China  without 
offending  too  much  the  prejudices  of  the  Chinese. 
With  Michael  Ruggiero,  who  had  arrived  at  Macao 
in  A.  D.  1580,  Ricci  obtained  leave  to  stay  at  Shau- 
king,  and,  as  Dr.  Wells  Williams  tells  us,  44  in  their  / 
intercourse  with  the  people  of  all  classes  they  won 
good  opinions  by  their  courtesy,  presents  and  scien- 
tific attainments.”  At  first  the  Jesuits  dressed  as 
Buddhist  priests ; later  they  wore  the  garb  of  lit- 
erati; and,  when  in  A.  D.  1601,  they  succeeded  for 
the  first  time  in  reaching  Peking,  their  knowledge  of 
astronomy  and  mathematics  made  possible  a stay 
which  would  have  been  cut  short  had  they  appeared 
as  evangelists  alone.  Nevertheless,  their  converts 
were  not  few  and  some  of  them,  like  Paul  Su  and  his 
daughter,  who  was  baptized  as  Candida,  were  influ- 
ential enough  to  protect  their  teachers  from  molesta- 
tion. Ricci  died  in  1610. 

The  Manchu  Invasion.  The  last  years  of  Wan 
Li;  were  under  the  shadow  of  impending  invasion 
from  the  north.  The  famous  Manchu  chief,  Nur- 
hachu,  who  was  born  in  A.  D.  1559  near  the  source 
of  the  Yalu,  in  Korea,  first  appeared  as  a conqueror 
in  the  Liaotung  peninsula  in  A.  D.  1582.  Three 
years  later  all  the  confederation  of  Tatar  chiefs 
recognized  him  as  their  king  and  we  find  him  pre- 
paring for  the  conquest  of  China.  In  A.  D.  1617 
he  published  his  memorable  “ Seven  Hates  of  the 
Tatars  against  the  Chinese,”  concluding  with  the 


THE  MING  DYNASTY 


165 


words,  “ For  all  these  reasons  I hate  you  with  an 
intense  hatred  and  now  make  war  upon  you.”  This 
manifesto  Tien  Ming,  or  Nurhachu,  burned  in  the 
presence  of  the  army  in  order  that,  thus  spiritual- 
ized, it  might  pass  into  the  presence  of  the  dead  as- 
a witness  against  the  Mings.  Having  thus  put  in 
the  strongest  light  the  various  wrongs  from  which 
the  Manchus  asserted  themselves  to  be  suffering,  the 
chief  advanced  into  the  border  land,  vowing  that  he 
would  celebrate  his  father’s  funeral  with  the  slaugh- 
ter of  two  hundred  thousand  Chinese.  He  seems  to 
have  fulfilled  his  vow  only  too  well,  and  in  A.  D.  1625 
fixed  his  capital  at  Mukden.  Two  years  later  he 
died  without  having  led  his  army  into  China  proper. 
His  son  carried  on  the  work  which  had  been  begun, 
broke  through  the  Great  Wall  in  three  places,  rav- 
aged the  province  of  Chihli,  and  advanced  far 
enough  to  show  that  Peking  was  at  his  mercy. 

The  Last  of  the  Mings.  Wan  Li  in  the  mean- 
time had  died,  A.  D.  1620,  of  a broken  heart,  and 
the  Ming  throne  fell  with  all  its  burdens  upon  Chu- 
ang  Lieh  Ti,  known  as  Ts'ung  Clieng.  The  Manchu 
invasion  was  not  the  only  menace  of  the  situation. 
British  commerce  made  a characteristic  appearance 
at  Canton  in  A.  D.  1635.  The  vessels  under  Cap- 
tain Weddell  proceeded  to  the  Bogue  forts  and, 
being  fired  upon  at  the  instigation  of  the  Portuguese, 
— “ Herewith  the  whole  fleet  being  instantly  in- 
censed, did  on  the  sudden  display  their  bloody  en-  1 
signs;  and  weighing  their  anchors  fell  up  with  the 
flood  and  berthed  themselves  before  the  castle,  from 
whence  came  many  shot,  yet  not  any  that  touched  so 
much  as  hull  or  rope;  whereupon  not  being  able  to 


166  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


endure  their  bravadoes  any  longer,  each  ship  began 
to  play  furiously  upon  them  with  their  broad- 
sides.” 2 

More  serious  was  the  insurrection  that  broke  out 
under  Li  Tzu-cK eng  and  Chang  Hsien-chung.  The 
whole  country,  indeed,  as  an  annalist  testifies, 
hummed  with  the  spirit  of  revolt,  like  a hive  of  bees 
in  swarming  time,  but  Li  Tzu-ch'eng  represented  a 
coalition  of  rebel  leaders  known  as  the  Eight  Kings. 
Li  was  a village  headman  who  had  turned  brigand, 
associated  himself  with  a gang  of  desperadoes  (a 
gang  which  included  a famous  female  bandit),  and 
had  at  length  risen  to  the  command  of  a powerful 
army.  The  Mings  were  reduced  to  the  direst  ex- 
tremities. Kaifengfu  was  strictly  besieged  by  Li, 
and  human  flesh  was  sold  in  the  shambles  for  food. 
The  Imperialist  general  endeavored  to  retaliate  by 
cutting  the  dikes  and  flooding  the  country.  “ Chi- 
na’s Sorrow,”  the  Huang-ho,  was  nothing  loath  to 
do  its  deadly  work,  but  the  inundation  did  nothing 
in  return  to  help  the  dynasty  in  its  extremity.  Pe- 
king was  soon  invested  and  the  end  came  not  long 
after.  The  Emperor,  with  a touch  of  dignity  about 
his  death  such  as  he  had  never  shown  during  his  life, 
committed  suicide.  He  called  around  him  the  mem- 
bers of  his  family,  and  toasted  them  in  the  wine  of 
the  country.  Then  he  bade  his  wife  slay  herself  in 
her  own  apartment,  which  she  did,  strangling  herself 
with  a silken  cord.  Forty  concubines  followed  the 
Queen’s  example,  and  the  Emperor  himself  attempted 
to  slay  with  his  sword  his  fifteen  year  old  daughter.3 
Then  he  ordered  his  other  children  to  be  slain  to  save 
their  honor,  and  retired  to  a favorite  eminence  in  the 


THE  MING  DYNASTY 


167 


palace  grounds  where  he  hanged  himself.  Ere  he 
died  he  wrote  on  the  lapel  of  his  robe  his  last  edict, 
ending  with  the  words,  “ Hack  my  body  to  pieces 
if  you  will,  but  spare  my  people.”  A eunuch  who 
had  remained  faithful  to  the  last  stripped  the  body 
of  the  royal  robes  that  it  might  not  be  recognized, 
and  gave  it  the  best  burial  that  was  possible  under 
the  circumstances. 

The  triumph  of  the  rebels  was  frustrated  by  the 
Ming  general,  Wu  San-kwei , who  at  once  opened  up 
negotiations  with  the  Manchus,  inviting  them  to  save 
the  country  from  the  revolting  faction  and  reestab- 
lish order.  Li  advanced  against  him,  but  was  badly 
beaten  and  forced  to  retreat  upon  Peking.  Here  he 
placed  upon  the  ramparts  the  heads  of  the  Ming 
Emperor’s  murdered  sons,  and  above  the  principal 
gate  the  bloody  head  of  the  Chinese  general’s  father. 
With  a great  cry,  a cry  which  was  at  once  taken 
up  by  all  the  army,  Wu  San-kwei  burst  into  the  city. 
Li  fled,  deserted  by  most  of  his  men,  and  died  mis- 
erably soon  after  at  the  hands  of  local  militia  in  the 
province  of  Hupeh.  The  invited  Manchus,  nothing 
reluctant,  now  entered  China  to  lay  hands  upon  the 
spoil,  and  T‘ien  Tsung  dying  in  1644  his  son  Shun 
Chih  was  proclaimed  in  the  same  year  the  first  Man- 
chu  Emperor  of  China.  The  words  of  the  procla- 
mation are  worth  quoting: 

“ I,  Son  of  Heaven,  of  the  Dynasty  Tai  Ch‘ing, 
respectfully  announce  to  Your  Majesties  the  Heaven 
and  the  Earth,  that  which  follows : My  grand- 

father having  received  the  mandate  of  Heaven, 
founded  in  the  East  a kingdom  which  became  mighty. 
I,  the  Servant  of  Heaven,  although  unworthy,  have 


168  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


inherited  his  dominions.  The  Mings  having  become 
corrupt,  rebels  arose  everywhere  and  oppressed  the 
people.  China  being  without  government,  I,  faith- 
ful to  the  beneficent  traditions  of  my  family,  have 
destroyed  its  oppressors  and  saved  its  people,  after 
which,  yielding  to  the  universal  request,  I have  fixed 
the  seat  of  the  Empire  at  Peking.  Crowned  with 
the  blessings  of  Heaven,  I announce  that  I have  as- 
cended the  throne  and  have  named  my  dynasty  T‘ai 
Chhng,  and  my  reign  Shun  Chih.  I beg  respectfully 
that  Heaven  and  Earth  may  aid  me  to  put  an  end  to 
the  misfortunes  of  my  country.” 


NOTES 


1.  “ The  Middle  Kingdom/’  II  427. 

2.  Staunton’s  Embassy,  I 5-12. 

3.  She  afterwards  recovered  and  married  “ a mag- 
nate of  the  court  whom  she  had  long  loved  ” (Boulger). 


169 


PART  II 


FROM  THE  MANCHU  CONQUEST  TO  THE 

PRESENT  DAY 


4 


CHAPTER  XVII 


INTRODUCTORY 

A celebrated  Japanese  gardener,  the  story  goes, 
set  out  to  make  a garden  in  which  he  should  use  but 
one  of  the  manifold  products  of  a bounteous  earth. 
He  chose,  of  all  things  in  the  world, — rocks ! and  we 
are  told  that  his  rock-garden  was  one  of  the  won- 
ders of  the  neighborhood.  There  are  many  who 
suppose  that  Chinese  history  must  necessarily  be,  if 
a garden  at  all  with  any  ordered  plan,  a garden  of 
rocks,  mere  facts  petrified  with  age,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  preciosite  of  some  antiquarian  or  ar- 
chaeological schematism,  but  out  of  all  relation  with 
the  things  that  live. 

It  is  hoped  that  those  who  have  hitherto  followed 
this  little  history  will  have  discovered  that  such  an 
estimate  is  untrue.  The  forces  which  rule  in  modern 
China  are  not  for  the  most  part  forces  which  have 
been  imported  from  foreign  lands.  They  are  forces 
which  come  potent  and  alive  out  of  the  historic  past. 

A Chinese  legend  tells  how  in  the  fifth  century 
B.  C.  a certain  prince  offended  his  sovereign  and  was 
ordered  to  commit  suicide.  The  culprit  obeyed  and 
his  body  was  cast  into  the  great  river  Yangtsze  as 
he  had  requested.  But  he  predicted  that  he  would 
come  again  to  behold  the  ruin  of  his  ruthless  master 
and  the  legend  tells  us  that  the  great  bore  of  Hang- 
chow rolling  seaward  with  “ a wrathful  sound,  and 

173 


174  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


the  swift  rush  of  thunder  ” is  nothing  else  but  the 
spirit  of  the  unappeased  Tsz-sii.  In  like  manner 
the  spirits  of  the  past  ages  make  to-day’s  tides. 
The  spirit  of  the  Revolution  of  1911  wras  the  same 
as  that  which  swept  away  the  Shang  Dynasty  eleven 
centuries  before  Christ,  or  that  wrhich  drove  back 
the  Mongol  into  Central  Asia  in  1368  A.  D.  The 
democratic  forces  which  have  prevailed  to-day  are 
essentially  the  same  as  those  which  called  Shun  from 
his  plowing  twenty-five  centuries  before  Christ,  or 
made  it  possible  for  an  obscure  Buddhist  priest  to 
found  the  dynasty  of  the  Mings. 

All  history,  however  modern,  must  take  account  of 
.origins.  The  Knickerbocker  history,  wThich  must 
needs  go  back  to  the  patriarchs  to  commence  the 
history  of  New  York,  is  not  wrong  in  principle.  Not 
only  is  it  true,  as  Shelley  sings,  that 

“ All  things,  by  a law  divine, 

With  one  another’s  being  mingle,” 

but  it  is  also  true  that  the  particular  must  always 
take  hold  of  the  universal.  The  drinking  cup  of 
every  man,  as  well  as  that  of  Thor,  is  connected  with 
the  infinite  ocean.  He  who  would  drain  to  the  bot- 
tom his  own  draught  must  exhaust  the  sea.  All  this 
is  true  of  the  history  of  China  as  well  as  that  of  any 
other  country*  The  facts  of  China’s  past  contain 
not  only  the  interpretation  of  China’s  present : they 
contain  also  the  interpretation  of  the  history  of  Eu- 
rope and  America.  As,  in  Darwin’s  famous  illus- 
tration, the  white  clover  disappeared  from  a certain 
district  in  Australia  because  the  boys  had  killed  off 
the  cats  which  had  hitherto  destroyed  the  mice,  now 


vv'- 


INTRODUCTORY 


175 


enabled  to  multiply  and  so  destroy  the  nests  of  the 
bumble  bees  which  had  fertilized  the  clover,  in  his- 
tory there  is  no  scientific  frontier  between  nations. 
Modern  Europe  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, which  fell  largely  before  the  inroads  of  the 
barbarian  tribes  which  the  great  Han  generals  of 
China  had  succeeded  in  turning  westward ; and  mod- 
ern America  is  the  result  of  the  dreams  which  Marco 
Polo  inspired  in  the  navigators  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury of  a Cathay  rich  and  splendid  beyond  the  imag- 
ination of  mortal  men. 

All  this  needs  to  be  emphasized  because  it  would 
be  a pity  to  attempt  the  understanding  of  China  out 
of  a study  restricted  to  modern  times.  We  need 
some  far-flung  vision  of  the  past,  with  all  its  mist 
and  all  its  glamour,  if  we  w’ould  appreciate  the  pres- 
ent, which  seems  more  prosaic  because  seen  at  closer 
range.  To  know  a river  in  such  a way  as  to  account 
for  its  size,  its  currents,  its  swiftness,  its  color,  the 
character  of  the  soil  brought  down  as  a deposit  for 
the  fields  on  either  hand,  you  must  do  more  than 
stand  upon  its  bank  at  a given  point:  you  must 
search,  if  you  can,  “ the  roots  of  the  fountain  ” and 
track  it  onwards  to  the  ocean.  Happy  indeed  if, 
while  in  other  historic  studies  wre  see 

“ In  outline  dim  and  vast 
Their  fearful  shadows  cast 
The  giant  forms  of  Empires,  on  their  way 
To  ruin,” 

we  find  in  the  case  of  China  a commonweatlh  of  un- 
known antiquity  continually  resisting  the  forces  of 
disintegration,  and  a contemporary  of  the  youngest 


176  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


as  it  was  a contemporary  of  the  most  ancient  na- 
tionalities the  world  has  known.  A French  writer 
has  recently  said : “ II  rCest  'point  si  facile  de  faire 

table  rase  du  vieusc  monde  celeste”  The  phrase  is 
an  apt  one  and  applies  with  as  much  force  to  the 
revolution  brought  about  by  the  Manchus  in  1644 
as  to  that  which  took  place  before  our  astonished 
eyes  a year  or  two  ago.  There  is  no  table  rase 
at  the  commencement  of  the  period  with  which  this 
volume  deals,  and  we  must,  therefore,  bring  to  the 
study  of  the  time  some  conception  of  the  various 
epochs  which  gave  it  birth. 

Let  us  bring  with  us  to  the  study  of  the  China  of 
the  past  three  centuries  the  following  vision : 

In  the  youth  of  the  world,  beyond  the  beginnings 
of  authentic  history,  we  see  a shepherd  folk  in  the 
northwest  provinces  of  what  we  now  call  China,  of 
whose  provenance  we  can  only  speak  by  way  of  spec- 
ulation. These  folk  have  learned  to  rule  and  guard 
and  feed  their  sheep,  and  they  bring  to  the  ruling 
and  guarding  of  the  future  Empire  the  self-same 
qualities  which  have  made  them  shepherds.  Pres- 
ently, the  great  family  under  its  “ Pastores  ” is  seen 
to  be  outgrowing  the  old  patriarchal  despotism. 
The  machinery  of  a more  complex  government  is 
being  evolved,  not  only  to  secure  the  people  from  at- 
tacks from  the  fierce  aboriginal  tribes  within  their 
borders  and  to  repel  the  hordes  of  invaders  from 
without,  but  also  to  avert  or  heal  the  great  devasta- 
tions of  flood  and  drought  to  which  China  has  been 
subject  for  uncounted  ages. 

So  we  come  to  the  dynastic  history  which,  as 
given  us  in  the  later  compilations  of  the  Confucian 


INTRODUCTORY 


177 


literati,  represents  the  monarchs  of  China  in  the 
strongest  conceivable  light  and  shade.  Like  the  lit- 
tle girl  in  the  rhyme, 

“ When  they  were  good  they  were  very,  very  good, 
And  when  they  were  bad  they  were  horrid.” 

There  is  some  sameness  in  the  story  of  these  dynas- 
ties, for,  as  Byron  writes, — 

“ There  is  the  moral  of  all  human  tales ; 

’Tis  but  the  same  rehearsal  of  the  past; 

First  Freedom,  and  then  Glory  — when  that  fails, 
Wealth,  Vice,  Corruption  — Barbarism  at  last. 

And  History  with  all  her  volumes  vast, 

Hath  but  one  page.” 

With  some  such  reflection  we  pass  by  the  story  of 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  dynasties  of  Hsia  and  Shang 
to  the  nine  centuries  during  which  ruled  the  house 
of  Chou.  This  we  think  of  as  the  feudal  period, 
when  the  centrifugal  tendencies  of  the  several  states 
were  stronger  than  the  forces  which  were  centripe- 
tal. It  is  during  this  period  that  we  perceive  philos- 
ophers and  professional  reformers  of  every  type  en- 
deavoring to  repair  by  ethical  teaching  the  moral  de- 
clension of  the  rulers.  It  is  the  era  of  Lao  Tzu  and 
Confucius,  of  Chwang  Tzu  and  of  Mencius,  of  Micius 
and  Licius.  Nevertheless,  all  the  philosophers  with 
their  democratic  theories  were  not  able  to  arrest  a 
brief  experiment  in  Imperialism,  and  for  one  genera- 
tion, from  about  B.  C.  250,  we  see  the  mighty  fash- 
ioner of  the  Great  Wall,  Ch4in  Shih  Huang  Ti,  bend- 
ing himself  to  the  double  task  of  rooting  out  from 
China  the  very  memory  of  Confucian  ideals  and  of 


178  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


welding  together  the  contending  principalities  into 
an  indissoluble  unity.  Ch‘in  Shih  Huang  Ti’s  dy- 
nasty perished  with  him,  but  that  which  followed, 
while  reacting  from  the  iconoclasm  of  the  anti- 
Confucianists,  carried  out  the  great  First  Emperor’s 
dream  of  extended  rule  and  pushed  on  the  frontiers 
of  China  to  regions  no  ruler  had  hitherto  known. 
The  story  of  the  Han  dynasty  and  of  those  great 
Wardens  of  the  Marches  who  reared  the  dragon  flag 
front  to  front  with  the  eagles  of  Rome  on  the  one 
frontier  which  divided  the  Empire  of  the  Pacific  from 
that  of  the  Atlantic, — is  one  of  thrilling  historical 
and  political  interest.  No  one  will  ever  quite  under- 
stand the  significance,  e.  g.y  of  the  Russian  Conven- 
tion with  Mongolia  in  1912  who  has  not  appreciated 
what  the  great  Han  generals  accomplished  two  thou- 
sand years  before. 

Then  there  rises  before  us  four  centuries  of  an- 
archy, which  have  become  for  us  centuries  of  ro- 
mance, and  we  scarcely  need  the  “ Story  of  the  Three 
Kingdoms  ” by  China’s  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  make  us 
feel  the  fascination  of  this  rude  vet  chivalrous  time. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  7th  Century  A.  D.,  when 
from  Japan  to  the  Atlantic  Coast  new  nations  were 
rising  into  manhood,  when  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  west  a modern  Europe  was  slowdy 
taking  shape,  and  on  the  ruins  of  the  Byzantine  Em- 
pire and  of  Sassanian  Persia  the  Khalifate  was  es- 
tablishing itself ; when  the  Nihongi  and  Kojiki  in 
Japan  were  telling  of  a new  power  rising  from  the 
mists  of  the  eastern  archipelago  — rises  into  view 
the  glorious  period  of  the  T‘angs,  memorable  alike 
for  its  literature  and  its  art,  and  above  all,  for  the 


INTRODUCTORY 


179 


great  religious  movements  which  turned  the  China 
of  the  7th  Century  into  the  hospitable  nursing- 
mother  of  foreign  religions,  Magian,  Muhamadan, 
Christian  and  Manichaean. 

Once  again  we  have  a period  of  anarchy  and  mis- 
rule, and  this  in  A.  D.  960  gives  place  to  the  Sungs 
with  their  philosophers  and  political  economists 
striving  to  hold  back  from  ruin  a land  already  to  a 
large  extent  under  the  grip  of  the  Tatar. 

A mist  of  blood  passes  before  the  eyes  through 
which  sweeps  westward  with  flashing  sword  the  ter- 
rible form  of  Jenghiz  Khan.  When  the  storm  had 
passed  we  see  rising  out  of  the  ruins  the  throne  of 
the  Mongol.  The  fair  city  of  Cambaluc  gleams 
from  afar  like  Camelot  and  through  the  magic  spec- 
tacles of  Marco  Polo  we  catch  a glimpse  of  Kublai 
Khan.  We  see  him  “ with  ten  thousand  falconers 
and  some  five  hundred  gerfalcons,  besides  peregrines, 
sakers  and  other  hawks  in  great  numbers ; and  gos- 
hawks also  to  fly  at  the  waterfowd.  The  Emperor 
himself  is  carried  upon  four  elephants  in  a fine  cham- 
ber made  of  timber,  lined  inside  with  plates  of  beaten 
gold,  and  outside  with  lions’  skins.” 

A century  more  and  the  Mongol  rule  has  passed 
to  the  limbo  to  which  it  had  itself  consigned  the 
Sungs.  Out  of  the  factions  of  the  mid-fourteenth 
century  rises  the  figure  of  the  “ Beggar  King,” 
achieving  Empire  almost  without  knowing  whither 
his  stars  were  leading  him,  and  so  founding  the  fa- 
mous dynasty  of  the  Mings. 

Now  at  last  our  vision  is  almost  finished.  The 
Ming  dynasty  has,  like  its  predecessors,  sunk  into 
the  mire  of  contempt.  The  Manchus  are  thunder- 


180  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


in g at  the  northern  portals,  but  it  is  to  rebellion  and 
intrigue  that  the  China  of  the  Mings  succumbs.  The 
last  Ming  Emperor  stands  in  the  San  Kwan  temple 
close  to  the  city  gates  to  learn  his  fate.  The  for- 
tune-telling sticks  are  in  the  vessel  in  his  hand.  If 
a long  stick  is  shaken  out  he  will  go  forth  to  meet 
the  rebels ; if  a medium-sized  stick  falls  he  will  await 
him  in  his  palace;  if  a short  stick  falls  he  will  kno\£ 
the  worst.  Then  the  lots  were  cast  and  the  short 
stick  fell  to  the  ground.  The  Emperor  “ with  a 
mingled  cry  of  rage  and  despair,  dashed  the  slip  on 
the  ground,  exclaiming  ‘ May  this  temple  built  by 
my  ancestors  evermore  be  accursed ! Henceforward 
may  every  suppliant  be  denied  what  he  entreats  as  I 
have  been ! Those  that  came  in  sorrow,  may  their 
sorrow  be  doubled ; in  happiness,  may  that  happiness 
be  changed  to  misery ; in  hope,  may  they  meet  de- 
spair ; in  health,  sickness ; in  the  pride  of  life  and 
strength,  death ! I,  Ts‘ung  Cheng,  the  last  of  the 
Mings,  curse  it.’  ” 

So  he  went  back  to  the  palace  and  arranged  for 
the  death  of  himself  and  family.  Next  day, 
strangled  with  his  own  girdle,  the  last  of  the  Mings 
lay  dead  on  the  Mei  Shan  in  the  Palace  gardens  at 
Peking. 

When  the  news  reached  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Chinese  army,  he  gave  the  word  which  let  in  the 
Manchus  into  the  heritage  of  the  sons  of  Han. 


NOTE 


Backhouse  and  Bland  in  “ Annals  and  Memoirs  of 
the  Court  of  Peking/’  show  the  end  of  the  Mings  as 
anything  but  dignified.  They  ascribe  the  decline  un- 
der this  dynasty  as  due  largely  to  Eunuch  rule. 
“ Eunuchs  have  always  tried  to  engage  their  Sovereign’s 
attention  in  ignoble  pursuits,  so  that  they  might  freely 
pursue  their  ambitious  designs.”  The  great  Empress 
dowager  is  quoted  as  saying  on  her  death  bed:  “ Never 
again  allow  any  woman  to  hold  the  supreme  power  in 
the  State.  It  is  against  the  house-law  of  our  dynasty 
and  should  be  strictly  forbidden.  Be  careful  not  to 
allow  eunuchs  to  meddle  in  Government  matters.  The 
Ming  dynasty  was  brought  to  ruin  by  eunuchs  and  its 
fate  should  be  a warning  to  my  people.” 


181 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 
A.  D.  1644-1661. 

The  Manchu  period — the  Manchus — Nurhaclm 
— the  Conquest — Wu  San-kwei — Accession  of 
Shun  Chih  — Ama  Wang  — Progress  of  the  Con- 
quest — S'hang  K‘o-hsi  — Ching  Chih-lung  and  Cox- 
ing a — Adam  Schaal  — Foreign  relations  — Death 
of  Shun  Chih. 

The  Manchu  Period.  Much  more  is  popularly 
known  of  this  period  in  Europe  and  America  than 
of  the  dynasties  which  preceded  it.  This  is  natural 
both  on  account  of  its  nearness  to  our  own  time  and 
because  of  the  necessarily  closer  relations  established 
during  this  period  with  the  western  nations.  Never- 
theless, the  history  of  the  Manchu  dynasty,  like  the 
history  of  China  generally,  has  been  written  for  the 
most  part  from  the  foreign  standpoint  and  might 
perhaps  be  more  justly  entitled,  as  we  have  so  far 
appreciated  it,  a History  of  the  foreign  relations 
of  China  during  the  Manchu  period.  This  result 
has  followed  from  two  obvious  considerations. 
First,  those  who  have  written  have  been  for  the  most 
part  interested  mainly  in  questions  which  concern 
the  outer  world.  Secondly,  the  Chinese  have  fol- 
lowed the  custom  of  deferring  the  publication  of  the 
memoirs  of  a dynasty  until  the  dynasty  itself  has 

run  its  course.  Hence  on  many  points  in  the  story 

182 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 


183 


of  the  epoch  we  have  considerably  less  light  from 
native  sources  than  on  the  stories  of  the  dynasties 
of  Han  or  Sung.  In  our  description  of  the  events 
coming  within  this  period  we  shall  endeavor  to  pre- 
serve the  same  sense  of  proportion  observed  in  the 
earlier  volume.  Many  important  questions  must, 
of  course,  be  treated  less  than  adequately,  but  in 
these  cases  it  will  be  easy  to  supply  the  deficiency 
from  detailed  and  authoritative  sources. 

The  Manchus.  The  Kin  Tatars,  or  Manchus, 
have  already  been  described  as  a branch  of  the  great 
Tatar  family.  They  had  their  original  home  on  the 
banks  of  the  Sungari  River.  They  make  their  first 
appearance  upon  the  field  of  history  in  the  10th  and 
11th  Centuries,  when  they  followed  the  Khitan 
Tatars  into  the  northern  part  of  China.  The 
Khitans  had  adopted  the  name  of  Liao , or  Iron , as 
the  title  of  their  dynasty,  and  transmitted  it  to  the 
peninsula  which  they  wrested  from  the  Chinese  and 
which  has  ever  since  borne  the  name  of  Liaotung. 
On  their  heels  came  the  ancestors  of  the  Manchus, 
then  called  Niichihs , and  with  a fling  at  their  rivals, 
took  the  name  Kin , or  gold,  for,  said  they,  “ Iron 
rusts,  gold  keeps  its  color.”  A century  later,  how- 
ever, the  Kin  Tatars  were  driven  out  of  China  by 
Jenghiz  Khan.  The  name  Man-elm , or  Pure,  was 
given  to  the  tribe  by  Aisin  Gioro,  who  was  miracu- 
lously born  to  a heavenly  maiden  in  the  Chang  Pai 
mountains.  Aisin  Gioro  consolidated  the  Manchu 
power  and  established  his  capital  at  Otoli,  but  after 
his  reign,  which  was  violently  ended,  the  Manchus 
pass  out  of  sight  until  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 


184  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Nurhachu.  We  may  perhaps  usefully  sum- 
marize what  has  already  been  said  on  the  subject  of 
the  Manchu  conquest  and  retrace  the  steps  which 
led  to  the  downfall  of  the  Mings.  The  most  potent 
instrument  in  the  early  stages  of  the  conquest  was 
the  famous  chief  Nurhachu,  who  aspired  to  become 
a second  Jenghiz  Khan.  Born  in  A.  D.  1559,  he 
succeeded  in  conquering  the  Liaotung  peninsula  in 
A.  D.  1582.  From  that  moment  onwards  he  cast 
covetous  eyes  upon  the  Ming  dominions  to  the  south. 
Contact  with  the  Chinese  seemed  inevitably  to  create 
an  atmosphere  of  conflict.  The  conflict  became 
more  and  more  embittered  as  the  years  passed,  and 
Nurhachu,  in  issuing  the  famous  declaration,  known 
as  the  “ Seven  Hates”  showed  that  he  was  anxious 
to  seek  some  justification  for  the  projected  cam- 
paign. At  the  same  time,  in  taking  the  throne  name 
of  Tien  Ming,  he  showed  unmistakably  that  his  in- 
tention was  nothing  less  than  conquest.  This 
achievement  was,  in  all  probability,  only  averted  by 
his  death  in  A.  D.  1627.  The  foresight  which  led 
him  to  send  his  son  in  early  childhood  into  China 
that  he  might  be  instructed  in  the  language,  manners 
and  customs  of  the  Chinese,  is  only  one  more  indica- 
tion amongst  many  of  the  purpose  which  lay  nearest 
to  his  heart. 

The  Conquest.  Hostile,  however,  as  were  the 
intentions  of  the  Manchus,  it  is  important  to  re- 
member that,  as  on  the  earlier  occasion  under  the 
Sungs,  the  actual  occupation  of  China  came  to  them 
as  the  result  of  an  invitation  from  the  Chinese  them- 
selves. Many  years  after,  the  Emperor  K‘ang  Hsi 
was  able  to  say  in  his  last  Will  and  Testament: 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 


185 


“ Of  all  the  dynasties  which  have  succeeded  up  to 
the  present,  there  is  none  which  has  acquired  the 
Empire  with  so  much  right  and  justice  as  mine.” 
The  facts  which  give  some  color  to  this  claim  have 
already  been  recited.  They  may  be  briefly  restated. 
On  the  death  of  Nurhachu  the  campaign  against 
China  was  at  once  followed  up  by  his  son.  The 
north  was  ravaged  and  Peking,  where  the  Ming  Em- 
peror was  living  amid  a horde  of  eunuchs  and  effem- 
inate literati,  was  threatened.  The  expedition  had 
already  caused  the  “ Son  of  Heaven  ” to  lose  face, 
and  the  people  were  ready  to  believe  that  the  Mings 
were  abandoned  by  Providence.  But,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  downfall  came  without  the  actual  interven- 
tion of  the  Manchu.  The  rebellion  of  Li  Tzu-ch* eng 
and  his  capture  of  Peking  wrere  the  immediate  causes 
of  the  suicide  of  the  last  of  the  Mings  and  the  Em- 
pire lay  apparently,  at  this  juncture,  at  the  mercy 
of  the  rebels.1 

Wu  San-kwei.  Nowr  appears  on  the  scene  the 
great  general  who  by  some  has  been  esteemed  as  the 
chief  of  patriots,  while  by  others  he  has  been  re- 
garded as  the  worst  of  traitors.  In  later  years  he 
was  possibly  not  without  his  pangs  of  self-reproach, 
but  it  is  only  fair  to  give  him  credit  throughout  his 
career  for  the  highest  of  motives.  It  wras  not  toler- 
able to  him  to  see  the  capital  in  the  hands  of  rebels. 
There  was  at  least  a chance  of  securing  peace  for 
the  Empire  by  calling  in  the  Tatars.  Wu  San-kwTei 
was  near  the  frontier  when,  in  A.  D.  1643,  he  heard 
of  the  capture  of  Peking.  He  hurried  to  meet  the 
victor,  but,  on  attacking  a certain  stronghold,  he 
was  dismayed  to  find  that  Li  held  possession  of  his 


186  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


aged  father,  whom  he  threatened  to  slay  under  his 
son’s  eyes  unless  submission  was  made.  No  more 
touching  story  of  loyalty  has  ever  been  written  than 
that  which  tells  how  Wu  San-kwei  fell  down  on  his 
knees  and,  bursting  into  tears,  besought  his  father’s 
pardon  for  sacrificing  the  tenderness  of  a son  to 
loyalty  towards  his  sovereign.  The  father  was  not 
behind  the  son  in  courage,  and  gave  himself  cheer- 
fully to  death  while,  as  we  have  already  told,  venge- 
ance was  not  long  delayed.  Of  the  subsequent  his- 
tory of  Wu  San-kwrei  there  will  be  something  to  say 
in  the  following  chapters.2 

Accession  of  Shun  Chih.  The  Tatar  con- 
queror, Tsung  Teh,  under  these  circumstances  in- 
vited to  occupy  the  vacant  throne,  lived  just  long 
enough  to  enter  Peking.  He  died  in  A.  D.  1614, 
after  proclaiming  as  his  successor  the  young  prince 
who  at  the  age  of  six  assumed  the  title  of  Shun  Chih 
and  is  generally  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Manchu 
sovereigns  of  China.  The  dynastic  title  chosen  was 
that  of  Tai  Ch' mg,  or  Great  Pure  Dynasty.  Ac- 
cording to  the  accounts  given  by  the  Jesuit  fathers, 
China  at  this  time  contained  a population  of  eleven 
and  a half  million  families.  At  the  end  of  the  reign 
another  estimate  was  made  of  nearly  fifteen  million 
families,  or  eighty-nine  million  individuals.  The 
whole  Empire  was  well  mapped  out  by  the  Jesuits 
and  Father  Martini  published  in  A.  D.  1654  his 
. Atlas  Sinensis.  Descriptions  of  the  time  show  a re- 
markable degree  of  organization  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  officials  on  the  public  roads.  An  itinerary 
was  printed,  lodging  places  everywhere  provided  and 
runners  went  a day  ahead  to  make  all  necessary 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 


187 


preparations.  The  reign  of  Shun  Chih  is  marked 
by  the  re-division  of  the  land  into  eighteen  provinces, 
instead  of  the  fifteen  which  had  existed  under  the 
Mings. 

Ama  Wang.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  success- 
ful achievements  of  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
Shun  Chih  the  credit  should  be  given  to  the  Em- 
peror’s uncle,  the  Regent  Ama  Wang.  His  was  the 
comprehensive  intelligence  and  the  strong  arm  which 
grasped  and  suppressed  most  of  the  dangerous  out- 
breaks of  rebellion  and  when  he  died,  whilst  on  a 
hunting  expedition,  in  A.  D.  1651  the  conquest  had 
been  to  a large  extent  secured.  Shun  Chih  showed 
less  than  gratitude.  A royal  funeral  was,  indeed, 
celebrated  and  posthumous  honors  awarded,  but  a 
few  months  afterwards  the  tongue  of  slander  reached 
the  ears  of  Shun  Chih  and,  under  the  impression 
that  Ama  Wang  had  before  his  death  been  seeking 
his  own  aggrandizement  the  Emperor  degraded  his 
memory,  destroyed  his  tomb,  and  even  mutilated  the 
dead  body. 

Progress  of  the  Conquest.  The  security  of  the 
Tai  Chcing  Dynasty  was  far  from  complete  with  the 
conquest  of  the  north.  The  situation  was  not  unlike 
that  in  England  after  the  death  of  Harold  at  the 
Battle  of  Hastings.  New  pretenders  to  the  Ming 
succession  were  constantly  put  forward  and  leaders 
were  found  to  head  the  obstinate  rebellions  which 
broke  out  in  various  provinces.  There  were,  too, 
many  Portuguese  from  Macao  ready  to  serve  as 
mercenaries.  Some  of  these  were  enlisted  and  prom- 
ised to  provide  artillery,  but  jealousy  of  the  for- 
eigners proved  a stronger  passion  than  even  hatred 


188  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


of  the  Manchu.  The  chief  resistance  to  the  invader 
was  naturally  in  the  south.  At  Nanking  a great 
rally  was  made  around  the  person  of  the  prince  Fu 
Wan , but  the  Chinese  were  defeated  and  the  claimant 
drowned  in  the  waters  of  the  Yangtse  River.  Fu 
Wan  was  manifestly  unfit  to  afford  a promising 
rallying  point  since  he  was  more  given  to  the  pursuit 
of  pleasure  than  to  the  hardships  of  a soldier’s  life. 
It  is  told  of  him  that  on  one  occasion  he  sighed,  and 
explained  the  sigh  with  the  remark,  “ I am  sighing 
to  think  it  is  impossible  now-a-days  to  find  a first 
rate  actor.”  The  General  Shih  K‘o-fa  made  an- 
other rally  at  Yangchow,  which  he  defended 
heroically  for  some  time.  But  the  tide  of  massacre 
flowed  on  irresistibly.  The  “ Journal  of  a Citizen 
of  Yangchow  ” has  been  translated  and  gives  a most 
harrowing  picture  from  the  pen  of  an  eye  witness 
of  the  butchery  which  went  on  until,  as  the  writer 
tells  us,  ten  or  even  a hundred  Chinamen,  meeting  a 
single  Manchu  soldier,  prostrated  themselves  and 
bent  their  necks  for  the  sword  without  daring  to  flee. 
“ If  there  are  any,”  says  Wang,  in  concluding  one 
of  the  most  terrible  narratives  ever  written,  “ who, 
born  in  a period  of  peace  and  enjoying  a tranquil 
life,  have  not  in  themselves  wisdom  enough  to  govern 
themselves  aright,  let  them  find  in  this  narrative  of 
events  a lesson  and  a warning.”  3 One  Ming  prince- 
ling was  put  forward  in  Fuhkien,  others  in  other 
places.  But  it  was  all  in  vain.  One  was  captured 
and  sent  to  Peking  to  be  strangled  with  the  bow- 
string. Another  was  slain  in  battle.  Remorse- 
lessly the  conquerers  continued  their  advance.  The 
siege  of  Chekiang  produced  one  memorable  act  of 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 


189 


heroism  on  the  part  of  the  conquered  when  Lo  Wang, 
pretending  for  the  occasion  to  be  a would-be  Em- 
peror, saved  the  city  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself.  In 
Kwangsi  two  Christian  Chinese  generals  made  an- 
other obstinate  resistance,  but  again  in  vain.  Can- 
ton, after  an  investment  of  ten  months  wras  captured 
and  a horrible  massacre  took  place  in  which  over  a 
hundred  thousand  persons  perished.  The  last 
claimant  to  the  Ming  throne,  Kuei  Wang,  who  took 
the  throne  name  of  Yungli,  was  encountered  in  the 
extreme  southwest  and  was  finally  delivered  up  to 
the  conquerors  by  the  Burmese  in  the  year  of  Shun 
Chih’s  death.  He  and  his  son  Constantine  wrere 
slain  and  his  wrife  and  mother,  Anne  and  Helena, 
who  were  Christians,  were  kept  in  prison  in  Yun- 
nanfu  until  their  death. 

In  addition  to  these  attempts  to  restore  the  de- 
posed dynasty  Shun  Chih  had  to  contend  with  a 
trouble  of  another  kind  in  the  rebellion  in  the  west 
under  Si  Wang.  This  uprising  deserves  to  be  men- 
tioned if  only  as  an  illustration  of  the  fearful  waste 
of  human  life  which  insurrections  in  China  have  en- 
tailed. The  massacre  of  thirty  thousand  literati 
was  only  one  incident  in  the  career  of  Si  Wang. 
The  massacre  of  the  wives  wras  on  a larger  scale  still. 
Si  Wang  believed  that  his  army  would  be  invincible 
if  only  his  soldiers  were  freed  from  domestic  ties. 
So  at  his  bidding  four  hundred  thousand  women 
were  slain.  The  sacrifice  was  useless,  for  the  leader 
was  soon  after  slain  by  an  arrow  and  the  rebellion 
melted  away. 

Shang  K‘o-hi.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  many  of 
the  most  famous  generals  in  this  terrible  campaign 


190  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


of  subjugation  were  Chinese  rather  than  Manchu. 
Of  these  we  have  already  mentioned  Wu  San-kwei, 
who  for  his  services  was  made  “ Prince  Pacifier  of 
the  West  ” with  the  Vicerovalty  of  Yunnan  and 
Szechuan  and  a residence  at  Singanfu.  Another, 
almost  equally  famous,  was  Shang  K‘o-hi,  who 
passed  from  the  service  of  the  Mings  in  A.  D.  1035 
and  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life  one  of  the  most 
trusted  servants  of  the  Manchus.  He  was  ap- 
pointed “ Prince  Pacifier  of  the  South  ” in  A.  D. 
1646  and  had  charge  of  the  Manchu  armies  in 
Kwangtung  which  he  governed  until  A.  D.  1674. 
He  was  the  principal  leader  in  the  attack  on  Canton. 
In  later  years  many  efforts  were  made  to  induce  him 
to  join  in  the  rebellion  of  Wu  San-kwei,  but  he  stood 
firm  in  his  allegiance.  When  he  heard  of  the  de- 
fection of  his  son  he  was  overwhelmed  with  grief  and 
committed  suicide. 

Ching  Chih-lung  and  Coxinga.  Two  of  the 
most  romantic  figures  in  the  story  of  the  conquest 
are  those  of  the  great  pirates,  Ching  Chih-lung  and 
his  son,  Ching  ClVing-kung,  better  known  as  Cox- 
inga, a corruption  by  the  Portuguese  of  the  title 
Kuo-hsing-yeh , “ Possessor  of  the  National  Sur- 
name.” The  father  was  a native  of  the  province  of 
Fuhkien,  but  had  lived  for  many  years  in  a Japanese 
settlement  in  Formosa  where  the  son  was  bom  of 
a Japanese  mother.  The  elder  Ching  was  first  of 
all  only  an  ordinary  freebooter,  but  gradually  he 
developed  into  a serious  opponent  of  the  Manchu  su- 
premacy and  the  conquerors  had  more  difficulty  with 
him  and  his  apparently  omnipresent  fleet  than  with 
all  the  land  forces  of  China.  The  son  earned  an  even 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 


191 


more  terrible  name  and  became  to  the  Manchu  what 
Hereward  the  Wake  was  to  the  Norman.  On  one 
occasion  four  thousand  Manchus  were  made  pris- 
oners after  a naval  battle  and  were  liberated  with 
their  ears  and  noses  cut  off.  They  were  ordered 
slain  by  the  shamed  and  indignant  Emperor.  The 
terror  of  Coxinga  at  length  became  so  great  that 
the  people  of  six  provinces  were  ordered  to  retire 
three  leagues  inland  under  pain  of  death,  after  de- 
stroying all  their  property,  in  order  to  leave  to  the 
pirates  nothing  but  a desert  shore.  The  effect  was 
felt  as  painfully  by  the  peaceful  inhabitants  as  by 
the  pirates,  for  many  thousands  who  had  hitherto 
got  their  living  by  fishing  were  now  ruined.  One 
of  the  most  important  achievements  of  Coxinga  was 
the  driving  out  of  the  Dutch  from  Formosa,  after  a 
long  siege  of  Fort  Zealandia,  and  the  assumption 
of  sovereignty  over  the  island.  The  new  principal- 
ity drew  colonies  from  the  province  of  Fuhkien,  and 
Formosa  remained  an  appanage  of  the  “ Sea  Quell- 
ing Duke  ” for  some  twrenty-eight  years.  After 
many  adventures  the  father  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Manchus  and  was  executed  in  Peking  in  A.  D.  1661. 
The  son  survived  only  one  year,  dying  at  the  age 
of  thirty-nine  after  a most  romantic  career.  His 
adventures  form  the  subject  of  one  of  the  best  known 
of  Japanese  plays  by  the  dramatist  Chikamatsu.  It 
is  interesting  to  add  that  the  descendants  of  Coxinga 
were  ennobled  under  the  title  of  H ai-ching-kung  (Sea 
Quelling  Duke)  presumably  for  their  services  in  re- 
storing the  island  of  Formosa  to  the  Empire. 

Adam  Schaal.  The  entry  of  the  Jesuits  into 
China  under  the  Mings  has  already  been  recorded. 


192  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Matteo  Ricci  had  come  as  early  as  A.  D.  1601  and 
had  lived  without  undue  friction  with  the  Chinese 
until  his  death  in  A.  D.  1610.  His  place  was  filled 
by  Longobardi,  and  others  came  whose  scientific  zeal 
produced  over  three  hundred  treatises  on  various 
branches  of  western  learning.  The  most  command- 
ing figure  among  the  members  of  the  order  was  a 
German,  the  famous  Adam  Schaal,  who,  arriving  in 
A.  D.  1628,  survived  the  dynasty  and  lived  on  into 
the  reign  of  K‘ang  Hsi.  He  was  chosen  by  the  Man- 
chus  to  reform  the  Calendar  and  in  addition  to  his 
scientific  work  made  many  converts.  During  the 
minority  of  K‘ang  Hsi  he  incurred  the  jealousy  of 
the  regents  and  was  cast  into  prison,  dying  of  grief 
and  suffering  on  Aug.  16,  1669,  after  thirty-seven 
years  of  splendid  work  in  the  Imperial  service. 
During  the  reign  of  Shun  Chih  he  stood  in  high  favor 
at  court,  although  even  then  the  quarrels  between 
Dominicans  and  Jesuits  and  the  events  taking  place 
in  Japan  were  making  the  position  of  the  mission- 
aries precarious.4 

Foreign  Relations.  The  arrival  of  Europeans 
had,  even  before  the  end  of  the  Ming  Dynasty,  begun 
to  exercise  a disturbing  influence  on  the  course  of 
Chinese  history.  The  relations  of  the  Dutch  had 
commenced  with  the  attack  on  Macao  and  the  occu- 
pation of  the  Pescadores  in  A.  D.  1622.  The  Chi- 
nese had  met  the  situation  with  the  shrewd  sugges- 
tion that  Holland  should  take  Formosa  rather  than 
the  Pescadores  and  the  hint  had  been  accepted. 
Formosa  remained  Dutch  till  Coxinga  expelled  the 
intruders  and  made  the  island  his  own.  Several  em- 
bassies were  attempted  by  the  pushing  Hollanders 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 


193 


of  this  time.  In  A.  D.  1653  they  sent  an  Embassy 
to  Canton  which  was  brought  to  naught  by  the  alert- 
ness of  their  Portuguese  rivals.  Two  years  later, 
an  Embassy  was  sent  to  Peking  and  an  interesting 
account  has  come  down  to  us  from  the  pen  of  Niew- 
hof,  who  has  detailed  for  us  some  of  the  astonishing 
servilities  wrhich  were  exacted  of  the  accommodating 
ambassadors.  By  their  complacency,  however,  they 
secured  the  privilege  of  sending  an  Embassy  once 
in  eight  years  and  of  employing  four  ships  in  the 
Chinese  trade.  There  were  to  be  only  a hundred 
men  in  a Company  and  only  twenty  were  to  be  per- 
mitted to  proceed  to  Court. 

Russian  efforts  were  even  more  persistent.  As 
early  as  A.  D.  1567  tw  o Cossacks  had  attempted  to 
see  the  Emperor  but  had  failed  because  they  brought 
no  presents.  In  A.  D.  1619  Evashto  Pettlin  arrived 
at  Peking  writh  the  same  intention,  but  he  too 
brought  no  presents  and  was  dismissed  without 
seeing  the  dragon’s  face.  He  got,  however,  a letter 
which  no  one  in  Moscow  was  able  to  decipher.  In 
A.  D.  1640  the  Russian  conquests  on  the  Amur 
brought  them  into  close  relations  with  the  Middle 
Kingdom  and  in  A.  D.  1653  the  Czar  Alexis  sent 
Baikoff  w^ho  was  too  proud  to  kotow  before  Shun 
Chih  and  was  thereupon  dismissed.  Persistent  ex- 
peditions followed,  extending  into  the  next  reign, 
viz.:  in  A.  D.  1658,  1672  and  1677.  The  ultimate 
result  wras  the  Treaty  of  Nerchinsk  in  A.  D.  1689 
— the  first  treaty  ever  agreed  upon  by  the  court  at 
Peking  in  modern  times. 

English  influence  was  of  little  account  during  the 
reign  of  Shun  Chih.  The  visit  of  Capt.  Weddell  in 


194  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


A.  D.  1635  has  already  been  alluded  to.  The  ar- 
rival of  another  power  was  naturally  viewed  by  the 
Portuguese  with  something  more  than  coldness  and 
there  was  little  encouragement  for  British  enter- 
prise from  any  other  quarter  until  after  the  close  of 
the  reign. 

Among  foreign  affairs  we  may  with  some  reason 
reckon  the  visit  of  the  Grand  Lama  of  Tibet,  since 
Tibet  had  not  yet  become  a part  of  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire. On  the  arrival  of  this  august  personage  at 
Peking  Shun  Chih  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of 
Dalai  Lama  which  has  since  been  borne  by  the 
ecclesiastical  heads  of  Lamaism.  The  term  had 
indeed  been  used  by  the  Mongol  Khans  for  the  Tib- 
etan ruler  as  early  as  A.  D.  1576,  but  the  confirma- 
tion of  that  title  by  Shun  Chih  in  1653  made  its 
authority  complete. 

Death  of  Shun  Chih.  The  first  Manchu  Em- 
peror of  China  made  serious  efforts  to  secure  pop- 
ularity among  his  new  subjects.  He  showed  himself 
as  much  as  possible  among  the  people  and  ratified 
as  far  as  possible  the  existing  Chinese  laws.  He 
retained  the  Six  Boards,  accepted  the  counsels  of 
the  literati,  and,  in  the  interests  of  the  old  order,  re- 
fused permission  to  the  Chinese  to  learn  the  Tatar 
language.  On  the  other  hand,  the  insistence  on 
the  wearing  of  the  queue  as  a badge  of  subjection  to 
the  Manchu  provoked  the  intensest  resentment. 
The  Chinese  were  as  inordinately  attached  to  their 
national  manner  of  wearing  the  hair  long  and  un- 
shaven as  the  Koreans  were  of  their  top-knot  at  the 
time  of  the  Japanese  occupation  of  the  peninsula. 


THE  REIGN  OF  SHUN  CHIH 


195 


Hence  when  the  order  came  to  shave  the  head  with 
the  exception  of  one  long  lock  at  the  back  there 
were  thousands  of  people  who  preferred  to  lose  their 
lives  rather  than  dishonor  their  heads.  In  some 
provinces,  such  as  Fuhkien,  the  resistance  lasted 
until  recent  times  and  the  general  willingness  to 
sacrifice  the  pigtails  exhibited  in  the  recent  revolu- 
tion has  shown  that  even  centuries  are  not  sufficient 
to  recommend  a fashion  against  the  sentiment  of  a 
nation. 

Shun  Chih’s  death  took  place  in  A.  D.  1661,  ac- 
cording to  one  account  from  small-pox,  but,  accord- 
ing to  another  and  more  circumstantial  one,  from 
grief  at  the  decease  of  a favorite  wife.  This  wife 
had  been  the  spouse  of  a young  Manchu  whom 
the  Emperor  summoned  to  Court  and,  with  malice 
prepense,  boxed  his  ears.  Of  course  the  insulted 
subject  could  not  with  honor  survive  the  indignity 
and,  on  his  suicide,  which  had  been  foreseen,  Shun 
Chih  at  once  married  the  widow.  When  she  died  the 
grief-stricken  Emperor  was  with  difficulty  prevented 
from  slaying  himself.  He  had  thirty  women  immo- 
lated, according  to  the  old  fashion,  at  her  tomb  and 
preserved  the  body,  reduced  to  ashes,  in  a silver 
urn.  Then  he  shaved  his  head  and  went,  like  a mad- 
man, from  pagoda  to  pagoda  till  death  ensued. 
Just  before  his  death  he  selected  as  his  heir  his 
second  son,  then  eight  years  old, — destined  to  bear 
the  great  and  glorious  name  of  K‘ang  Hsi.  He  then 
exclaimed,  “ I shall  soon  depart  to  rejoin  my  an- 
cestors,” and  expired  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  after 
a reign  of  eighteen  years.  The  four  appointed  re- 


196  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


gents  at  once  repaired  to  the  ancestral  hall  and 
vowed  before  the  shades  of  the  dead  to  be  loyal  to 
the  trust  imposed  upon  them.  So  commenced  the 
reign  of  K‘ang  Hsi.5 


NOTES 


1.  Li  Tzu-ch‘eng,  “ Prince  Harrier/’  as  he  was 
called,  entitled  his  dynasty  T‘ ai  Shun.  Early  in  life 
certain  omens  pointed  his  way  to  Imperial  power. 

2.  Backhouse  and  Bland,  “Annals  and  Memoirs,” 
take  a very  unfavorable  view  of  Wu  San-kwei,  attribut- 
ing his  opposition  to  Li  to  infatuation  for  a certain  danc- 
ing girl.  B.  and  B.  acknowledge  his  ability  as  soldier, 
statesman,  scholar,  “ but  of  his  principles  and  patriotism, 
the  less  said  the  better.” 

3.  See  “ Annals  and  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Pe- 
king,” ch.  VII. 

4.  The  life  of  Adam  Schaal  is  given  by  Remusat  in 
his  “ Melanges  Asiatiques,”  Vol.  II,  p.  217. 

5.  Gossip  has  been  busy  writh  the  name  of  Shun 
Chih.  Stories  have  been  circulated  of  his  illegitimate 
birth  and  it  is  furthermore  believed  bv  manv  that,  in- 
stead  of  dying  in  1661,  he  abdicated  and  retired  to  a 
Buddhist  monastery.  In  a temple  14  miles  from  Pe- 
king a mummy  statue  was  shown  whose  features  were 
strikingly  like  those  of  Shun  Chih.  The  Emperor’s  de- 
votion to  Buddhism  was  well  known  and  one  writer 
says:  “ He  threw  away  the  Empire  as  one  casts  away 
a worn  out  shoe;  he  rejected  the  sovereignty  thrust  upon 
him  in  this  incarnation  and,  following  the  example  of 
the  Lord  Buddha,  prepared  to  seek  the  mystic  solitudes.” 


197 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 

t 

A.  D.  1661-1722 

Accession  — Rebellion  of  Wu  San-Jcwei — The 
Jesuit  Missions  — The  Advance  of  Russia — War 
with  the  Eleuths  — The  Sacred  Edict  — P*u  Sung- 
ling  — The  Reforms  of  K'ang  Hsi  — Death  of 
K'ang  Hsi. 

Accession.  Shun  Chih  was  succeeded  by  his  sec- 
ond son  who  took  the  name  of  K‘ang  Hsi,  a title 
signifying  Unalterable  Peace , and  inaugurated,  if 
not  a period  of  peace,  at  any  rate  one  of  the  longest 
and  most  splendid  eras  in  the  history  of  China.  The 
reign  completed  a full  Chinese  cycle  of  sixty  years 
and  was  for  fifty-four  years  contemporary  with  that 
of  Louis  XIV  — a fact  of  which  the  French  Jesuits 
have  not  been  slow  to  remind  us.  It  was  also  for 
nearly  half  a century  coincident  with  the  reign  of 
the  great  Mogul  of  India,  Aurungzib.  For  the  first 
six  years  of  this  long  period  K‘ang  Hsi  was  under 
the  control  of  four  somewhat  reactionary  regents, 
but,  on  the  death  of  one  of  them,  the  Emperor,  who 
was  now  fourteen  years  old,  determined  to  assume 
for  himself  the  reins  of  government.  He  began  with 
characteristic  vigor  to  purge  the  court  of  the  un- 
wholesome influence  of  the  palace  eunuchs.  Four 

198 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 


199 


thousand  of  these  pestilent  parasites  were  expelled 
and  their  employment  strictly  prohibited  for  the 
future, — a prohibition,  alas,  but  slackly  observed. 
The  Emperor  then  ordered  the  laws  of  the  Empire 
to  be  newly  engraved  on  iron  tablets  of  a thousand 
pounds’  weight  and  prepared  to  rule  as  well  as  to 
reign.  K‘ang  Hsi  is  described  in  the  following 
terms:  “ Fairly  tall  and  well  proportioned,  he  loved 

all  manly  exercises  and  devoted  three  months  an- 
nually to  hunting.  Large  bright  eyes  lighted  up 
his  face,  which  was  pitted  with  small  pox.  Con- 
temporary observers  vie  in  praising  his  wit,  under- 
standing, and  liberality  of  mind.  Indefatigable  in 
government,  he  kept  a careful  watch  on  his  Min- 
isters, his  love  for  the  people  leading  him  to  prefer 
economy  to  taxation.  He  was  personally  frugal, 
yet  on  public  works  he  would  lavish  large  sums.”  1 
The  Rebellion  of  Wu  San-kwei.  The  final 
steps  in  the  pacification  of  China  belong  to  this 
reign,  such  as  the  suppression  of  the  piratical  raids 
of  Coxinga,  but  at  one  time  it  seemed  very  much  as 
though  the  whole  work  of  conquest  would  have  to 
be  done  over  again  through  the  defection  of  the  great 
Chinese  general,  Wu  San-kwei.  “ The  Pacificator  of 
the  West  ” had  for  a long  time  been  regarded  almost 
as  an  independent  feudatory  chief,  and  may  very 
well  in  this  respect  have  incurred  the  suspicion  of 
the  Emperor.  When  an  invitation,  offered  as  a test, 
came  from  K‘ang  Hsi  to  pay  a visit  to  Peking,  Wu 
San-kwei  had  on  his  part  excuse  for  suspicion,  espe- 
cially as  his  son,  who  was  then  residing  in  the  cap- 
ital, advised  him  against  compliance.  The  only 
alternative  to  obedience,  however,  was  rebellion.  “ I 


200  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


will  go  to  Peking,”  he  declared,  “ if  they  persist,  but 
it  will  be  at  the  head  of  eighty  thousand  men.”  So 
the  breach  came  in  1674  and  each  side  at  once  took 
the  inevitable  step  of  making  war.  The  partisans 
of  Wu  San-kwei  formed  a plot  in  Peking  to  blow 
up  all  the  Manehu  court  at  the  New  Year  festival. 
This  was  discovered  on  the  very  eve  of  the  day  ap- 
pointed through  the  treason  of  a slave.  All  hope 
of  reconciliation  was  now  at  an  end.  The  outlook 
for  the  Manchus  seemed  at  first  black,  for  four  prov- 
inces at  once  declared  for  Wu  San-kwei  and  the 
whole  of  the  Southwest  was  seething  with  disaffec- 
tion. There  was,  moreover,  a strong  disposition  on 
the  part  of  the  Mongols  of  Tatary,  under  a leader 
who  was  reputed  to  be  descended  from  Jenghiz  Khan, 
to  make  common  cause  with  the  Chinese.  To  add 
to  K‘ang  Hsi’s  troubles  a great  earthquake  and  fire 
desolated  Peking  and  destroyed  the  Imperial  Palace. 
Nevertheless  the  young  Emperor  faced  the  all  but 
desperate  situation  with  characteristic  coolness  and 
courage.  The  Manehu  garrisons  held  their  own  and 
gradually  Wu  San-kwei  was  forced  into  a position 
where  defeat  became  more  or  less  inevitable.  The 
struggle  lasted  for  four  years,  during  which  time  the 
Manchus  were  greatly  assisted  by  the  new  artillery 
which  had  been  manufactured  under  the  instruction 
of  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  Death  came  to  the 
heroic  rebel  in  A.  D.  1678  or  1679  just  when  he  was 
at  the  end  of  his  resources.  Then  he  who  had  never 
known  defeat  for  fifty  years  of  strenuous  warfare 
yielded  to  a stronger  foe  than  K‘ang  Hsi.  It  was 
deemed  right  by  the  victor  to  make  an  example  of 
the  vanquished  even  though  the  grave  had  claimed 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 


201 


him.  Wu  San-kwei’s  bones  were  divided  and  sent 
into  all  the  provinces  in  order  that  they  might  be 
hung  from  a gallows  and  treated  with  contumely  by 
the  populace.2  Opinions  will  always  vary  as  to 
whether  Wu  San-kwei  should  be  honored  or  exe- 
crated by  his  fellow  countrymen.  A charitable 
judgment  will  scarcely  hesitate  to  think  of  him  as 
having  throughout  acted  according  to  his  conscience 
and  as  deserving  the  name  of  a brave  and  patriotic 
Chinaman. 

The  Jesuit  Missions.  The  guardians  of  the 
young  king  were  from  the  first  ill-disposed  towards 
the  missionaries,  and  this  for  more  than  religious 
reasons.  They  regarded  with  extreme  jealousy  the 
disposition  of  the  Emperor  to  trust  (not  without 
cause)  the  superior  ability  of  the  foreigners  in  the 
matter  of  calendar-making  and  astronomical  science. 
Adam  Schaal  was  thrown  into  prison  and  condemned 
to  death  by  slicing  ( ling-chih ),  but  fortunately  the 
sentence  was  cancelled  before  it  was  too  late.  How- 
ever, the  venerable  priest  never  came  forth  from  his 
dungeon  and  died  Aug.  16,  1669,  at  the  age  of 
seventy-eight,  having  given  thirty-seven  years  of  dis- 
tinguished service  to  the  Emperors  of  China. 
Others  suffered  a similar  fate,  the  Dutch  Jesuit 
Verbiest  escaping  from  confinement  only  when 
K‘ang  Hsi  took  up  the  reins.  The  Emperor,  it  is 
said,  was  annoyed  at  the  errors  of  the  court  astron- 
omers and  only  too  glad  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused 
by  the  death  of  Adam  Schaal  by  the  appointment  of 
Verbiest.  Louis  XIV  recognized  the  honor  which 
K‘ang  Hsi  had  conferred  upon  the  Jesuit  scientist 
by  the  gift  of  a large  bronze  azimuth  and  celestial 


202  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


globe  for  the  Emperor’s  use.  These  remained 
prominent  objects  upon  the  city  walls  of  the  capital 
till  Peking  was  looted  by  the  Allied  troops  in  1900. 
The  astronomical  instruments  were  taken  by  the  Ger- 
mans and  afterwards  displayed  among  the  treasures 
of  Potsdam.  At  the  same  time  K‘ang  Hsi  was  by 
no  means  indifferent  to  the  religious  side  of  the  situ- 
ation and  might  have  been  sympathetically  affected 
had  it  not  been  for  the  unfortunate  differences  be- 
tween the  missionaries  themselves.  In  China,  as  in 
Japan,  the  work  of  the  Jesuits  had  been  followed  up 
by  other  orders,  such  as  the  Franciscans  and  Dom- 
inicans, and  these  had  differed  more  than  a little 
in  matters  of  policy  if  not  in  matters  of  doctrine. 
These  differences  were  accentuated  by  the  arrival  of 
Bishop  Maigrot,  whose  ignorance  of  Chinese  excited 
the  contempt  of  K‘ang  Hsi,  and  whose  opposition  to 
the  wrork  of  the  earlier  missionaries  was  open  and 
illiberal.  The  appointment  of  a Papal  Legate 
added  fuel  to  the  fire  and  ICang  Hsi  found  himself 
under  the  necessity  of  banishing  De  Tournon,  the 
aforesaid  legate,  to  Macao.  The  question  of  an- 
cestor worship  was  one  chief  cause  of  controversy, 
the  Jesuits  regarding  it  as  not  wholly  irreconcilable 
with  Christianity,  the  Dominicans  insisting  on  its 
absolute  discontinuance.  Another  question  was  that 
of  the  term  to  be  used  as  an  equivalent  for  “ God,” 
and  incredible  bitterness  was  aroused  by  what  one 
would  have  supposed  a matter  to  be  critically  and 
dispassionately  considered.3  We  have  an  echo  of 
this  situation  in  the  words  of  the  good  Pope  in 
Browning’s  “Ring  and  the  Book”:  — 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 


203 


“ Five  years  since  in  the  Province  of  To  kien,  4 
Which  is  in  China  as  some  people  know, 

Maigrot,  my  Vicar- Apostolic  there, 

Having  a great  qualm,  issues  a decree. 

Alack,  the  converts  use  as  God’s  name,  not 
Tien-chu  but  plain  Tien  or  else  mere  Shang-ti, 

As  Jesuits  please  to  fancy  politic. 

While  say  Dominicans,  it  calls  down  fire, — 

For  Tien  means  Heaven,  and  Shang-ti,  supreme 
prince, 

While  Tien-chu  means  the  lord  of  heaven.” 

K‘ang  Hsi  was  scandalized,  not  only  by  the  quarrels 
which  these  controversies  provoked  among  profes- 
sors of  the  same  faith,  but  perhaps  even  more  by  the 
fact  that  the  Pope  decided  for  one  party,  the 
Dominicans,  while  he  had  already  decided  for  the 
Jesuits.  Such  an  interference  with  his  supremacy, 
ecclesiastical  and  civil,  boded  ill,  he  thought,  for  the 
Empire,  and  from  this  time  onward  his  attitude  was 
more  or  less  hostile.  It  should,  however,  be  said 
that  there  was  no  lack  of  deliberateness  in  the  matter 
and  many  meetings  of  the  Council  were  held  to  give 
opportunity  for  discussion.  The  emphasis,  more- 
over, in  the  proscriptive  edicts  which  followed  was 
invariably  on  the  political  character  of  the  mis- 
sionaries’ work,  rather  than  on  its  religious  aspect. 
“ False  and  pernicious  doctrine  ” they  regarded  it 
indeed,  but  it  was  with  the  fear  of  foreign  political 
interference  in  their  hearts  that  they  formed  their 
estimate.  The  Emperor  himself  was  certainly  not 
ungrateful  for  the  labors  of  the  Jesuits,  especially 
those  of  a scientific  character.  Verbiest’s  work, 
“ The  Perpetual  Astronomy  of  the  Emperor  K‘ang 


204  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Hsi,”  enjoyed  a high  reputation.  The  Jesuits, 
Bouvet,  Regis,  Jarboux,  Fridelli,  Cardoso,  de 
Tartre,  de  Mailla  and  Bon  jour,  rendered  inestimable 
service  through  their  cartography  of  the  provinces. 
The  maps  were  printed  in  the  great  work  of  du 
Halde  and  were  not  only  useful  to  the  Empire  but 
formed  the  first  introduction  to  modern  Europe  of 
some  knowledge  of  things  Chinese.  It  may  be  as- 
serted without  fear  of  contradiction  that  the  ad- 
vanced position  attained  by  France  in  Sinology 
to-day  is  largely  due  to  the  interest  created  in  China 
by  the  work  of  the  early  Jesuit  fathers.  In  this 
respect  Colbert’s  statesmanship  and  the  foresight  of 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  have  been  amply 
rewarded. 

In  A.  D.  1692,  after  twenty-two  years  of  pro- 
scription, prejudice  was  so  far  allayed  that  a declar- 
ation, to  which  the  Emperor  gave  the  force  of  law, 
was  published,  reciting  the  advantages  which  mis- 
sionary enterprise  had  brought  to  China  and  giving 
permission  to  the  missionaries  to  remain.  This  tol- 
erant attitude  was  maintained  until  A.  D.  1717  when 
a certain  mandarin  whose  travels  had  made  him  only 
too  well  acquainted  with  the  situation  in  Japan  and 
the  Philippines,  solemnly  warned  the  Emperor  of  the 
vaulting  ambition  of  the  foreign  propagandists. 
This  led  to  the  renewal  of  the  prohibition  against 
preaching  as  the  sole  means  available  for  warding 
off  mischievous  complications. 

The  Advance  of  Russia.  K‘ang  Hsi’s  manage- 
ment of  affairs  in  the  south  has  already  been  de- 
scribed. By  A.  D.  1684  even  Formosa,  a perennial 
source  of  trouble,  had  been  won  from  the  grandson 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 


205 


of  the  great  pirate.  In  the  meantime  trouble  was 
brewing  beyond  the  northern  and  western  frontiers: 
For  some  time  the  advance  of  Russia  eastward  had 
exercised  a disquieting  influence  upon  the  tribes  of 
Central  Asia.  From  A.  D.  1582  when  the  robber 
Cossack,  Yermak,  set  out  from  Perm  in  charge  of  an 
expedition  organized  by  the  Strogonoffs,  there  had 
been  stealthy  but  ceaseless  progress  in  the  Russian- 
ization  of  Northern  Asia.  The  Yenizei  was  reached 
in  A.  D.  1620.  In  1630  Tobolsk  was  settled.  In 
1648,  after  a successful  war  with  the  Tunguses  and 
Buriats,  Russian  dominion  was  extended  to  Lake 
Baikal.  With  headquarters  on  the  Lena,  four  thou- 
sand miles  from  Moscow,  trade  and  conquest  still 
pushed  on.  The  great  explorer,  Poyarkoff,  discov- 
ered a tributary  of  the  Amur  in  A.  D.  1643.  He 
encountered  little  opposition  from  the  Manchus,  who 
at  this  time  were  too  busy  with  their  invasion  of 
China,  so  he  entered  the  Sungari  and  at  last  came 
upon  the  Amur,  to  the  mouth  of  which  he  drifted. 
Poyarkoff  appealed  in  vain  to  his  government  for 
men  to  follow  up  his  discoveries,  but  private  enter- 
prise responded  in  the  person  of  Khabaroff.  The 
new  colonists  alienated  many  of  the  natives  by  their 
overbearing  manner,  and  in  A.  D.  1658  experienced 
a severe  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  who  car- 
ried back  a number  of  captives  to  Peking.  It  is  said 
that  the  descendants  of  the  captives  are  still  to  be 
distinguished  by  their  un-Chinese  features,  and  that 
they  live  in  the  very  section  of  Peking  to  which  they 
were  originally  consigned.  In  A.  D.  1689  came  the 
signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Nerchinsk , already  alluded 
to.  This  famous  agreement  secured  peace  between 


206  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


the  two  nations  for  a period  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty  years.  There  was  no  further  extension  of 
Russian  influence  in  China  during  the  reign  of  K‘ang 
Hsi.  Peter  the  Great  sent  an  embassy  under  Ismai- 
loff  in  A.  D.  1719  which  was  graciously  received, 
but  a second  expedition  failed  because  it  found 
K‘ang  Hsi  on  his  death-bed  and  the  anti-foreign  min- 
isters in  control.  Thus  ended  Peter’s  dream  of 
“ tapping  the  wealth  of  China.” 

War  with  the  Eleuths.  Among  the  tribes 
made  restless  by  the  Russian  advances  were  the 
Eleuths,  a tribe  of  Kalmucks  wThose  leader,  Galdan, 
seems  to  have  dreamed,  like  others  before  and  since, 
of  repeating  the  career  of  Jenghiz  Khan.  He  took 
it  for  granted  that  an  alliance  with  Russia  must 
furnish  a good  opportunity  for  breaking  with  China 
and  would  compel  that  country  to  recognize  his  inde- 
pendence. The  Emperor  drew  the  sword  reluct- 
antly, and  after  trying  various  means  of  concili- 
ation; but  he  was  determined  to  bring  Galdan  to  his 
senses.  The  war  ended  in  A.  D.  1690  with  the  pre- 
tended submission  of  Galdan  and,  the  following  year, 
the  Emperor,  accompanied  by  the  Jesuit  Gerbillon, 
who  was  a good  Mongolian  and  Russian  scholar,  held 
a review  of  the  troops  in  the  field.  Unfortunately, 
Galdan’s  ambitions  revived  and  a new  campaign  was 
rendered  necessary  in  A.  D.  1697.  An  ultimatum 
was  despatched  to  the  too  audacious  chieftain  and  a 
limit  of  seventy  days  assigned,  but  before  the  ex- 
piration of  this  period  Galdan  was  released  from  his 
predicament  by  death.  He  is  said  to  have  poisoned 
himself.  It  must  be  added  that  the  Eleuth  chief 
showed  in  the  conduct  of  his  campaigns  very  little 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 


207 


resemblance  to  the  great  conqueror  whom  he  desired 
to  emulate.  A nephew,  Tsi  Wang,  tried  for  a while 
to  deserve  better  success,  but  a third  Chinese  force 
penetrated  Mongolia  and  K‘ang  Hsi  had  the  good 
fortune  to  celebrate  the  complete  subjugation  of  the 
Eleuths  on  the  sixtieth  anniversary  of  his  ascending 
the  Dragon  throne. 

No  other  trouble  beyond  the  frontier  vexed  the 
reign  of  K‘ang  Hsi,  with  the  exception  of  the  dispute 
in  Tibet  between  the  two  factions  of  Lamas,  known 
as  the  Red  Caps  and  the  Yellow  Caps.  A garrison 
was  sent  to  watch  events  and  Chinese  authority  was, 
as  we  shall  see,  ultimately  recognized. 

K‘ang  Hsi  and  Literature.  Notwithstanding 
the  demands  made  upon  him  by  long-continued  re- 
bellion and  warfare,  ICang  Hsi  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  munificent  patrons  Chinese  literature 
ever  possessed.  Through  his  efforts  and  encourage- 
ment some  stupendous  literary  enterprises  were 
brought  to  a successful  consummation.  Of  these  the 
works  most  deserving  of  mention  are  two  large  con- 
cordances printed  in  forty-four  and  thirty-six 
volumes  respectively ; an  encyclopaedia  in  forty-four 
volumes ; another,  illustrated,  in  sixteen  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  volumes  of  two  hundred  pages  each ; 
and,  chief  in  fame  if  not  in  importance,  the  great 
Dictionary  containing  44,439  characters  arranged 
under  the  two  hundred  and  fourteen  radicals.  This 
was  the  work  of  thirty  literati  who  were  kept  busy 
for  a number  of  years.  For  the  printing  of  Gov- 
ernment publications  K‘ang  Hsi  ordered  the  en- 
graving of  250,000  copper  types. 

The  Sacred  Edict.  The  Sheng  Yu,  or  Sacred 


208  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Edict,  is  perhaps  the  best  known  of  the  writings 
attributed  personally  to  K‘ang  Hsi.  It  consists  of 
sixteen  maxims,  corresponding  with  the  sixteen  years 
of  the  3^outhful  sovereign  who  composed  them. 
Each  maxim  consists  of  seven  ideographs  and  the 
whole  is  proclaimed  twrice  a month.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  committed  to  memory  and  a versified  form  has 
been  issued  for  the  use  of  children.  These  sixteen 
moral  maxims,  which,  as  Dr.  Giles  observes,  are  com- 
monplace enough  in  themselves,  are  as  follows : 

1.  Pay  attention  to  filial  and  fraternal  duties. 

2.  Pay  respect  to  kindred,  and  display  the  ex- 

cellence of  harmony. 

3.  Prevent  litigation  in  your  neighborhood. 

4.  Pay  attention  to  husbandry  and  the  culture  of 

the  mulberry. 

5.  Exercise  economy  in  the  use  of  money. 

6.  Magnify  scholarship  and  academical  learning. 

7.  Oppose  foreign  religions  in  the  interest  of 

orthodoxy. 

8.  Explain  the  laws. 

9.  Manifest  politeness  of  manners. 

10.  Attend  to  the  essential  employments. 

11.  Attend  to  the  instruction  of  vouth. 

12.  Secure  the  innocent  from  false  accusation. 

13.  Warn  those  who  hide  deserters. 

14.  Pay  taxes  without  frequent  urging. 

15.  Extirpate  robbery  and  theft. 

16.  Settle  animosities  in  the  interest  of  life. 

The  issuing  of  the  Slieng  Yu  may  perhaps  be  best 
regarded  as  the  effort  of  an  enthusiastic  boy,  placed 
in  a position  of  great  responsibility,  and  anxious  to 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI  209 

do  something  towards  promoting  a return  to  the 
virtues  of  the  “ good  old  times.” 

P‘u  Sung-ling.  With  the  encouragement  of  the 
Emperor  it  may  readily  be  supposed  that  many 
would  be  disposed  to  try  their  own  hand  at  literature. 
This  is  indeed  the  case,  although  the  most  famous 
works  of  the  reign  belong  to  a category  not  highly 
regarded  by  the  literati,  viz.:  the  Novel.  The 
“ Strange  Stories  ” of  P‘u  Sung-ling,  to  take  only 
one  example,  are  exceedingly  entertaining.  The 
writer  was  born  in  A.  D.  1622,  took  his  first  degree 
in  1611  and  completed  the  book  by  which  he  is  known 
in  1679.  For  some  years  it  circulated  only  in  manu- 
script, as  the  author  was  too  poor  to  have  it  printed. 
The  printed  work  did  not  appear  till  1710.  As 
illustrating  the  variety  of  interest  in  the  “ Strange 
Stories,”  we  may  quote  Dr.  Giles.5  “ There  is  a 
Rip  Van  Winkle  story,  with  the  pathetic  return  of 
the  hero  to  find,  as  the  Chinese  poet  says  — 

“ City  and  suburb  as  of  old, 

But  hearts  that  loved  us  long  since  cold.” 

There  is  a sea-serpent  story  and  a story  of  a big 
bird  or  rukh ; also  a story  about  a Jonah,  who,  in 
obedience  to  an  order  flashed  by  lightning  on  the  sky 
when  the  junk  was  about  to  be  swamped  in  a storm, 
was  transferred  by  his  fellow-passengers  to  a small 
boat,  and  cut  adrift.  So  soon  as  the  unfortunate 
victim  had  collected  his  senses  and  could  look  about 
him,  he  found  that  the  junk  had  capsized  and  that 
every  soul  had  been  drowned.” 

The  Reforms  of  K‘ang  Hsi.  The  Emperor  dur- 


210  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


in g his  reign  made  many  earnest  attempts  at  reform. 
Among  these  was  the  effort  to  suppress  the  practice 
of  foot-binding  among  the  women.  The  origin  of 
the  practice,  which  is  unknown  to  the  Manchu  women 
and  to  the  Hakkas  of  the  south,  is  doubtful.  Some 
ascribe  it  to  the  desire  to  remove  reproach  from  a 
certain  club-footed  Empress.  Some  see  its  origin 
in  feminine  envy  of  the  “ lily  ” feet  of  a famous  ro}ral 
mistress ; and  others  again  in  the  masculine  desire 
to  prevent  the  ladies  of  the  household  from  gadding 
about.  It  is  possible  also  that  the  practice  was 
meant  to  show  immunity  from  (and  therefore  superi- 
ority to)  the  necessity  of  field  labor,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  long  fingernails  of  the  men.  In  any  case  it 
has  been  the  cause  of  untold  sufferings  and  K‘ang 
Hsi’s  effort  was  one  in  the  direction  of  real  human- 
ity. Custom,  however,  was  too  strong  for  the  royal 
command  or  the  example  of  the  Manchu  women  to 
overcome.  It  is  said  that  even  to-day,  after  all  the 
efforts  of  the  “ Anti-foot-binding  Societies  ” there 
are  still  seventy  million  women  in  China  with  bound 
feet. 

More  successful  was  K‘ang  Hsi  in  the  prohibition 
of  the  immolation  of  women  at  the  funerals  of  the 
great.  Shun  Chih,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  sacri- 
ficed thirty  slave-women  at  the  tomb  of  his  favorite. 
Under  similar  circumstances,  K‘ang  Hsi  intervened 
to  prevent  the  destruction  of  four,  and  his  wishes 
were  in  this  respect  complied  with. 

The  abolition  of  the  Capitation  tax  was  a very 
popular  reform  and  did  not  a little  towards  allaying 
Chinese  disaffection  in  many  of  the  provinces.  The 
people  were  also  gratified  by  the  return  of  the  lands 


THE  REIGN  OF  K‘ANG  HSI 


211 


of  which  they  had  been  unjustly  deprived  and  even 
criminals,  banished  to  the  north,  had  reason  to  bless 
the  Emperor  who  decided  that,  on  account  of  the 
misery  inflicted  by  the  great  heat  upon  travelers  in 
the  months  from  July  to  November,  the  transporta- 
tions should  cease  during  this  period. 

We  may  add  to  this  account  of  the  reforms  of 
K‘ang  Hsi  that  the  Emperor  justly  prided  himself 
upon  the  “ royal  rice”  a species  which  he  discovered 
could  be  cultivated  as  far  north  as  Peking,  and 
which  he  therefore  believed  must  add  to  the  welfare 
of  his  subjects. 

Death  of  K‘ang  Hsi.  In  A.  D.  1722  the  aged 
sovereign  celebrated  an  unique  festival  in  the  Palace 
of  the  Heavenly  Purity.  It  was  the  sixtieth  year 
of  his  reign,  and  therefore  marked  the  completion  of 
a cycle  of  rule.  In  honor  of  the  occasion  K‘ang  Hsi 
invited  all  men  in  the  Empire  over  sixty  years  of  age 
to  be  his  guests  at  Peking.  How  many  found  it 
possible  to  accept  we  know  not,  but  the  occasion  can- 
not have  lacked  interest  and  picturesqueness.  Soon 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  festivities  K‘ang  Hsi  went 
beyond  the  Great  Wall  to  hunt  leopards.  While  on 
this  expedition  he  took  cold  and  died,  after  a brief 
illness,  on  Dec.  20,  1722. 

Thus  ended  what  was  without  question  a great 
reign.  It  amply  justified  the  confidence  with  which 
Shun  Chih  had  regarded  him  when  as  a child  he 
marked  him  out  for  sovereignty.  It  may  well  also 
excuse  the  note  of  satisfaction  expressed  in  K‘ang 
Hsi’s  last  Will  and  Testament : 

“ I,  the  Emperor,  have  more  than  a hundred  sons 
and  grandsons  and  I am  aged  seventy  years.  Kings, 


212  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


nobles,  officers,  soldiers,  peoples,  even  the  Mongols 
and  others  besides,  bear  witness  to  the  attachment 
they  bear  for  my  person,  regretting  to  see  me  so 
advanced  in  years.  Under  circumstances  so  flat- 
tering, if  I am  about  to  finish  my  long  career,  I shall 
leave  life  with  satisfaction.” 

Notwithstanding,  however,  this  satisfaction  with 
the  past,  K‘ang  Hsi  was  not  without  forebodings  in 
respect  to  the  future,  and  the  sagacity  and  foresight 
of  a great  ruler  were  never  better  manifested  than 
in  the  words  he  uttered  in  1717 : 

“ There  is  cause  for  apprehension,  lest  in  the  cen- 
turies or  millenniums  to  come,  China  may  be  en- 
dangered by  collisions  with  the  various  nations  of 
the  West  who  come  hither  from  beyond  the  seas.” 
For  this  danger  China  had  not  to  wait  millen- 
niums, and  subsequent  chapters  will  make  plain  the 
accuracy  of  the  great  Emperor’s  anticipation. 


NOTES 


1.  Giles,  “ Chinese  Literature,”  p.  385. 

2.  Wu  San-kwei  is  still  “ officially  venerated  in  Yun- 
nan and  we  may  see  on  each  side  of  the  bronze  pagoda 
a gigantic  sword,  which  was  supposed  to  represent  his 
arms,  accompanied  by  laudatory  inscriptions.  There  are 
many  legends  relating  to  Wu  San-kwei;  one,  which  is 
generally  believed,  is  to  the  effect  that  his  body  has 
never  been  buried,  but  reposes  in  a silver  coffin  hang- 
ing from  the  ceiling  of  a secret  chamber  in  the  palace 
of  the  Viceroy;  and  on  the  day  on  which  it  touches  the 
ground  the  Manchu  dynasty  will  fall.”  Vicomte 
d’Ollone,  “ In  Forbidden  China,”  p.  161.  This  legend 
conflicts  with  the  account  of  the  desecration  of  his  bones. 

3.  In  a prefatory  note  to  a printed  report  of  Dr. 

Legge’s  essay  on  “ Confucianism  in  relation  to  Chris- 
tianity ” read  at  a Missionary  Conference  in  1877  I 
find  the  following  words:  “ It  was  read  in  full  as- 

sembly, but  the  Conference  by  a vote  decided  to  omit 
it  from  the  printed  record  of  proceedings,  in  deference 
to  the  wishes  of  those  who  regarded  it  as  taking  one 
side  in  the  controversy  respecting  the  term  to  be  used 
for  God  in  the  Chinese  language.” 

4.  Browning’s  mistake  for  Fuhkien  (Fo-kien). 

5.  Giles,  “ Chinese  Literature,”  p.  352. 


213 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE  REIGN  OF  YUNG  CHENG 
A.  D.  1722-1736. 

Accession  of  Yung  Cheng  — Secret  Societies  — 
Insurrections  — Foreign  affairs  — Edict  against  the 
Missionaries  — the  Reforms  of  Yung  Cheng  — 
Yung  Cheng  as  author  — the  Great  Earthquake  — 
Death. 

Accession  of  Yung  Cheng.  K‘ang  Hsi  had  not 
been  altogether  without  his  anxieties  as  to  the  suc- 
cession. The  eldest  son  was  suspected  of  using  un- 
holy arts  to  prevent  the  throne  from  descending  to 
any  but  himself.  The  second  son,  the  favorite  of 
his  father,  was  regarded  as  the  victim  of  these  arts 
and  was,  in  consequence,  out  of  his  mind.  It  was 
not  till  the  last  day  of  his  life  that  the  Emperor 
could  bring  himself  to  nominate  an  heir.  This  was 
Yung  Cheng,  a man  of  good  ability  and  mature 
years,  being  forty-four  at  the  time  of  his  father’s 
death.  The  story  has  been  circulated  that  the  new 
monarch  was  really  the  fourteenth  and  not  the  fourth 
son  and  that  the  fourth,  then  in  Mongolia,  was  ar- 
rested and  imprisoned,  but  the  report  is  probably 
without  foundation.  Yung  Cheng  in  any  case  took 
pains  at  the  outset  to  make  good  his  title  to  the 
throne-name  he  had  chosen  — Stable  Peace. 

Secret  Societies.  The  most  serious  difficulties 

214 


THE  REIGN  OF  YUNG  CHENG  215 

to  be  encountered  by  Yung  Cheng,  difficulties  which 
unfortunately  increased  during  the  succeeding 
reigns,  sprang  out  of  the  multiplication  and  spread 
of  Secret  Societies.  Anti-dynastic  movements  had 
ceased  to  make  open  insurrection,  but,  in  concealing 
themselves  from  the  notice  of  the  authorities,  they 
became  “ hidden  fires,”  and  the  anti-Manchu  spirit 
succeeded  in  organizing  itself  in  manifold  ways. 
The  capacity  of  the  Chinese  for  organization  along 
these  lines  has  been  frequently  noted,  yet  possibly  no 
one  has  really  succeeded  in  getting  to  the  bottom  of 
a very  special  and  complex  subject.1  The  best 
known  of  these  associations  into  which  the  “ esprits 
forts  ” of  anti-Manchuism  gathered  themselves  are 
those  named  the  White  Lotus , the  Triads  and  the 
Heaven  and  Earth  society. 

The  White  Lotus  society  is  said  by  some  to  go 
back  to  the  fourth  century,  but  seems  really  to  have 
been  organized  in  the  first  years  of  the  Mongol  dy- 
nasty. The  founder  of  the  Ming  dynasty  is  said  to 
have  been  affiliated.  It  reached  the  height  of  its 
influence  at  the  end  of  the  18th  Century.  The 
Triads  were  possibly  founded  in  Mongol  times  by 
the  so-called  “ boxing  monks  ” of  Chaolinsz.  The 
Heaven  and  Earth  society  was  perhaps  founded  by 
the  pirate  Coxinga. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  there  was  an  extensive 
employment  of  literature  to  further  the  aims  of  these 
secret  orders.  Especially  was  this  the  case  with 
novels.  “ The  Dream  of  the  Red  Chamber  ” 2 is  a 
work  of  this  character,  one  of  the  most  widely  read 
novels  in  all  Chinese  literature. 

Insurrections.  Antagonism  to  the  dynasty,  or 


216  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


at  least  to  Yung  Cheng,  showed  itself  not  only  in  the 
sapping  and  undermining  work  of  secret  societies,  but 
also  in  the  open  insurrections  in  more  than  one  quar- 
ter. One  of  the  earliest  of  these  was  that  under  a 
chief  named  Lo-puh,  in  Tsinghai.  Over  two  hun- 
dred thousand  men,  largely  Buddhist  monks,  were 
induced  to  throw  in  their  lot  with  the  movement,  but 
General  Nien  so  vigorously  pushed  the  campaign 
against  the  rebels  that  it  was  in  the  course  of  a short 
time  completely  crushed.  The  rebel  leader  was  once 
surprised  in  bed  and  only  succeeded  in  escaping  by 
disguising  himself  in  a woman’s  clothes.  The  crush- 
ing of  the  rebellion  was  followed  up  an  imperial 
edict  to  the  effect  that  from  henceforth  no  monas- 
tery should  contain  more  than  three  hundred  monks 
and  that  these  should  not  be  permitted  to  carry 
arms. 

A second  and  more  serious  rebellion  broke  out  in 
A.  D.  1726  in  the  southwest  provinces  of  Kweichau, 
Szechwan  and  Yunnan.  It  was  brought  about 
mainly  by  the  independent  attitude  of  the  aboriginal 
tribes,  and  the  chief  purpose  of  the  three  years’  cam- 
paign of  subjugation  was  to  establish  more  com- 
pletely the  Imperial  rule  over  these  semi-barbarous 
clans.  This  was  accomplished  through  the  skill  and 
valor  of  the  Chinese  generals  and  soldiers,  though 
not  without  the  expenditure  of  much  treasure  and 
human  life. 

The  war  with  the  Eleuths,  over  whom  Galdan 
Chering  was  now  ruling  in  the  room  of  his  father, 
was  not  prosecuted  during  this  reign,  and  the  Chi- 
nese forces  were  withdrawn  from  the  desert  of  Gobi. 

Foreign  Affairs.  With  the  outside  nations  the 


THE  REIGN  OF  YUNG  CHENG  217 

relations  of  China  continued  much  as  in  the  preceding 
reign.  With  Portugal  matters  made  little  or  no  ad- 
vance. Pere  Magaillans,  who  had  in  the  previous 
reign  been  “ loaden  for  four  whole  months  together 
with  nine  chains,  three  about  his  neck,  his  arms  and 
his  legs,”  but  wTho  had,  like  the  Apostle  Paul,  been 
delivered  by  a great  earthquake,  an  earthquake  which 
shook  all  Peking,  returned  to  China  about  A.  D.  1723 
with  a letter  from  the  Pope,  and  was  permitted  to 
have  an  audience  with  the  Emperor.  The  only  result 
was  the  humiliation  of  the  envoys  who  wrere  repre- 
sented as  belonging  to  “ the  subject  nations.” 
Moreover,  the  citizens  of  Macao  were  not  too  wrell 
pleased  with  the  necessity  of  paying  for  the  thirty 
chests  of  presents  which  had  been  graciously  accepted 
by  the  Emperor. 

The  Russian  Embassy,  which  was  sent  by  the  Em- 
press Catherine  in  A.  D.  1727,  w as  more  fortunate. 
A mission  consisting  of  six  ecclesiastics  and  four 
laymen  was  permitted  to  remain  at  Peking  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  the  Chinese  and  Manchu  lan- 
guages. It  was  arranged  that  the  personnel  of  the 
mission  should  be  changed  every  ten  years  and  the 
Emperor  seems  to  have  jumped  at  the  chance  of  get- 
ting interpreters  from  elsewhere  than  the  Order  of 
Jesus.  The  caravan  trade  was  also  regulated,  and 
the  treaty  signed  August  A.  D.  1727,  which  contin- 
ued in  force  till  June,  1858,  is  said  by  Dr.  Williams 
to  be  the  longest-lived  treaty  on  record. 

Edict  Against  the  Missionaries.  The  literati 
began  from  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Yung 
Cheng  to  push  their  opposition  to  the  “ Religion  of 
the  Lord  of  Heaven,”  and  presented  a memorial  soon 


218  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


after  his  accession  petitioning  for  the  banishment  of 
the  foreign  priests  and  the  conversion  of  the  churches 
to  “ other  and  better  uses.”  Perhaps  the  Emperor 
himself  was  inclined  to  anti-foreign  opinions,  and  the 
fact  that  certain  members  of  the  royal  family,  who 
seemed  possible  rivals  to  himself,  had  embraced  Chris- 
tianity, made  his  inclination  the  more  pronounced. 
But  indeed  he  seemed  to  be  genuinely  concerned  lest 
China  should  become  Christian.  He  was  a votary 
of  a foreign  religion  himself,  being  a daily  worshiper 
of  the  Buddha,  but  he  contemplated  with  something 
like  consternation  the  prospect  of  a Christian  China. 
“ You  wish,”  he  said,  “ that  all  the  Chinese  should 
become  Christians,  and  indeed  your  creed  commands 
it.  I am  well  aware  of  this,  but  in  that  event  what 
would  become  of  us?  Should  we  not  soon  be  merely 
the  subjects  of  your  kings?  ” Consequently,  a hos- 
tile edict  was  issued  in  172-1  and  the  missionaries 
obeyed  the  decree  of  banishment  to  the  extent  of  re- 
tiring to  Canton,  leaving  three  hundred  thousand 
converts  well-nigh  shepherdless.  Some  attempt  on 
the  part  of  a few  of  the  priests  to  return  to  their 
flocks  was  met  with  sterner  measures,  and  in  1732  all 
the  priests  who  could  be  “ rounded  up  ” were  de- 
ported to  the  Portuguese  possession  of  Macao. 

The  Reforms  of  Yung  Cheng.  In  spite  of  the 
severe  measures  adopted  against  the  propagation  of 
Christianity,  the  missionaries  themselves  are  loud  in 
their  testimony  to  the  general  justice  and  beneficence 
of  Yung  Cheng’s  reign.  He  was,  they  said,  indefati- 
gable in  work,  and  was  ever  ready  to  recognize  merit 
and  reward  virtue.  Among  the  reforms  he  intro- 
duced was  one  to  limit  to  the  Emperor  himself  the 


THE  REIGN  OF  YUNG  CHENG  219 


right  to  sign  a sentence  of  death.  Like  T‘ai  Tsung 
of  the  T‘ang  dynasty,  he  desired  the  greatest  possible 
deliberation  in  a matter  of  such  importance  and  re- 
quired that  the  case  should  be  presented  to  him  three 
times,  lest  in  the  first  instance  he  should  be  tempted 
to  act  impulsively. 

To  encourage  agriculture  he  made  a law  that  in 
future  the  taxes  should  be  paid  by  the  proprietors, 
instead  of  by  the  tenants  of  the  land.  Still  more  sig- 
nificant was  the  remarkable  order  given  in  1732  that 
in  future  the  city  governor  should  annually  supply 
him  with  the  name  of  the  peasant  who  had  been  most 
diligent  in  cultivating  the  soil,  in  preserving  the  unity 
of  the  family  and  in  frugality  and  temperance  of  life. 
Such  model  peasants  were  to  be  made  mandarins  of 
the  eighth  class,  with  a right  to  wear  the  mandarin’s 
robe,  to  sit  in  the  presence  of  the  Governor  and  to 
take  tea  with  him.  On  their  death,  moreover,  they 
were  to  be  awarded  the  crowning  glory  of  having 
their  names  inscribed  in  the  Halls  of  the  Ancestors. 

Yung  Cheng  as  Author.  Possibly  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  “ what  one  does  through  another  one  does 
himself,”  Yung  Cheng  is  to  be  numbered  among  the 
authors  of  China.  To  begin  with,  he  has  the  credit, 
filial  perhaps  rather  than  literary,  of  amplifying  and 
commenting  on  the  Sacred  Edicts  of  K‘ang  Hsi.  In 
the  next  place,  he  is  held  responsible  for  a truly  re- 
markable Treatise  on  War.  It  is  entitled  the  “ Ten 
Precepts  ” and  was  designed  to  secure  in  perpetuity 
the  prestige  and  permanence  of  Manchu  sovereignty. 
These  precepts  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  Fathers  and  mothers  to  have  tender  care  of 
their  children. 


220  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


2.  Children  to  be  subordinate  to  parents  and  the 

younger  children  to  the  elder. 

3.  Good  relations  to  be  maintained  with  all  the 

world. 

4.  Parents  to  instruct  children  to  obey  the  laws 

and  to  have  respect  for  magistrates. 

5.  Soldiers  to  occupy  themselves  with  the  cultiva- 

tion of  the  land. 

6.  Soldiers  to  render  themselves  skillful  with  bow 

and  arrows,  on  foot  and  on  horseback. 

7.  Soldiers  to  be  economical,  especially  in  the  mat- 

ter of  marriages  and  funerals. 

8.  Soldiers  to  avoid  excesses  in  wine. 

9.  Soldiers  to  avoid  gambling. 

10.  Soldiers  to  be  careful  of  life,  by  avoiding  fights, 

homicides,  duels  and  the  like. 

Truly,  we  have  here  a “military  treatise”  which, 
if  followed  to  the  letter,  would  go  a long  way  towards 
rendering  war  impossible. 

The  Great  Earthquake.  Earthquakes  are  re- 
corded in  previous  reigns  as  working  havoc  in  and 
around  Peking.  A very  serious  one  visited  the  capi- 
tal in  the  reign  of  K4ang  Hsi.  But  the  earthquake 
which  visited  Peking  in  1730  all  but  destroyed  the 
city.  It  is  said  that  in  a few  minutes  a hundred 
thousand  persons  were  buried  in  the  ruins.  The  Im- 
perial Palace  fared  no  better  than  the  huts  of  the 
common  people.  There  was  general  misery,  in  the 
midst  of  which  the  Emperor  came  nobly  to  the  front. 
He  gave  liberally  of  his  own  private  means,  already 
strained  by  the  terrible  floods  which  had  devastated 
the  land  prior  to  the  earthquake,  for  the  relief  of  the 
sufferers,  and,  strange  as  the  fact  may  appear  in 


THE  REIGN  OF  YUNG  CHENG  221 

the  light  of  the  Edict  of  1721,  a thousand  ounces  of 
gold  were  bestowed  upon  the  Christian  missionaries 
who  remained  in  the  northern  capital  to  enable  them 
to  repair  the  damage  done  to  the  churches.  It  is  a 
pleasant  reflection  that  in  calamity  most  people  are 
able  to  put  aside  their  prejudices  and  to  learn  a 
larger  outlook  upon  humanity. 

Death  of  Yung  Cheng.  Yung  Cheng  died  Oct. 
5,  1735,  after  a “ highly  creditable  ” reign.  He  had 
just  given  audience  to  his  ministers  when  he  was 
taken  ill.  He  died  so  suddenly  that  he  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  nominate  his  successor. 


NOTES 


1.  See  for  “ Secret  Societies/’  Stanton,  Pickering, 
Groot  (“  Sectarianism  and  Persecution  in  China  ”)  and 
an  article  by  A.  Maybon,  “ Mercure  de  France June 
1912. 

2.  Giles,  “ Chinese  Literature,”  pp.  350  ff. 


222 


CHAPTER  XXI 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHTEN  LUNG 
A.  D.  1736-1796. 

CKien  Lung — Attitude  towards  Christianity  — 
Rebellion  vn  Southwest  — War  in  Central  Asia  — 
The  Flight  of  a Tatar  Tribe  — War  in  Burmali  — 
Conquest  of  the  Miaotsz — War  in  Tibet  — For- 
mosa — The  Macartney  Mission  — The  Dutch  Mis- 
sion — Ch‘ien  Lung  and  Literature  — Festivities  — 
The  Abdication  of  Ch'ien  Lung. 

Ch‘ien  Lung.  Hung-li,  the  fourth  son  of  Yung 
Cheng,  ascended  the  throne  under  the  title  of  Cliien 
Lung.  The  royal  name,  bestowed  according  to  the 
Chinese  custom,  after  death,  was  Kao  Tsung.  Al- 
though twenty-five  years  old,  he  at  once  appointed 
four  regents  upon  whose  counsel  he  might  rely.  At 
first  this  was  taken  to  imply  that  he  was  disinclined 
to  the  cares  and  responsibilities  of  rulership,  and  de- 
sirous rather  of  devoting  his  days  to  the  studies  to 
which  his  father’s  wishes,  as  well  as  his  own  leanings, 
disposed  him.  But  the  marvelous  energy  which  he 
displayed  just  as  soon  as  he  did  assume  the  reins  of 
government  quickly  dissipated  these  apprehensions 
and,  although  his  early  devotion  to  study  continued 
throughout  life,  it  was  but  as  one  of  many  means  for 
equipping  himself  for  the  tremendous  task  laid  upon 

him.  His  accession  was  marked  by  a striking  act 

223 


224,  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


of  clemency,  rare  enough  in  Oriental  annals.  The 
princes  of  the  royal  family,  who,  under  the  previous 
reign  had  been  banished  or  degraded,  were  restored 
to  their  dignities  and  given  the  privilege  of  wearing 
that  badge  of  close  relationship,  the  yellow  girdle. 

Attitude  towards  Christianity.  The  hopes  of 
the  missionaries  were  at  first  high,  but  favorable  ex- 
pectations were  not  realized.  The  regents  were  hos- 
tile and  the  laws  against  the  preaching  of  Christian- 
ity remained  in  force.  In  individual  cases,  however, 
favor  was  shown  to  the  Jesuits,  and  two  of  their 
number,  the  painters  and  architects  Castiglioni  and 
Attiret,  were  employed  for  the  purpose  of  building 
the  royal  palace  and  pavilions,  and,  incidentally, 
painting  the  royal  countenance.  The  security  of 
these  artist  priests  was  furthermore  useful  in  obtain- 
ing favors  for  others.  Further  south  the  Christian 
teachers  did  not  fare  so  well,  and  a terrible  persecu- 
tion broke  out  in  the  province  of  Fuhkien.  A num- 
ber of  Spanish  Dominicans  were  seized,  tortured  and 
decapitated,  and  the  like  fate  was  shared  by  a large 
number  of  their  converts.  Some  excuse  may  possi- 
bly be  urged  for  the  reactionary  feeling,  in  the  light 
of  the  terrible  massacres  of  Chinese  which  had  re- 
cently taken  place  under  the  Spaniards  in  the  Philip- 
pines. After  A.  D.  1747  the  missionaries  were  un- 
molested for  a generation,  but  in  1784  a new  inquisi- 
tion was  ordered  through  the  discovery  that  priests 
were  still  abroad  in  disguise.  Eighteen  of  these 
were  captured,  of  whom  six  succumbed  to  the  hard- 
ships of  imprisonment,  nine  left  the  country  and 
three  entered  the  service  of  the  Emperor.  It  is 
worth  remembering  that  this  was  “ the  last  general 


THE  REIGN  OF  CH‘IEN  LUNG  225 


crusade  officially  undertaken  against  foreign  propa- 
gandists.” 

Rebellion  in  the  Southwest.  Shortly  after 
the  accession  of  Ch‘ien  Lung  his  mettle  was  tried  by 
a formidable  rebellion  which  broke  out  in  the  south- 
west provinces  and  extended  to  Hunan  and  Kwangsi. 
General  Chang  Kwang-sze  was  sent  to  the  seat  of 
disturbance  and  prosecuted  the  campaign  with  such 
success  that  the  trouble  was  over  in  four  months. 
Unfortunately,  the  general  was  not  able  to  repeat 
his  success  when  the  aborigines  of  Szechwan,  under 
Salopan,  revolted  in  1746.  General  Chang  and  a 
fellow-general  quarreled,  and  in  consequence  failed. 
The  penalty  of  failure  was  a polite  invitation  from 
the  Emperor  for  each  to  commit  suicide,  and  the  lau- 
rels of  the  new  campaign  were  reaped  by  General 
Fu-ti,  who  was  himself  destined  in  later  years  to  re- 
peat the  tragedy  of  the  famous  soldier  he  had  super- 
seded. Solon’s  aphorism  “ Let  no  man  be  called 
happy  till  his  death  ” is  abundantly  applicable  to  the 
great  names  of  China. 

Wars  in  Central  Asia.  Yung  Cheng’s  policy 
of  retreat  from  Central  Asia  proved  unfortunate  and 
the  reestablishment  of  Chinese  authority  cost  Ch‘ien 
Lung  an  immense  sacrifice  of  blood  and  treasure. 
The  circumstances  under  which  interference  again 
became  necessary  are  briefly  as  follows : The  death 

of  the  Eleuth  chief  led  to  a contest  for  the  succession 
between  a son  named  Dardsha  and  a more  distant 
relative  Dayatsi.  The  cause  of  the  latter  was  es- 
poused by  the  fickle  and  ambitious  Amursana,  who 
had  regard  mainly  to  his  own  profit.  Dardsha  was 
slain  and  then  the  allies  fell  out.  Amursana  fled  to 


226  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


the  Chinese  court  and  under  specious  promises  of 
allegiance  obtained  the  support  of  the  Emperor. 
Notwithstanding  his  pledge,  he  soon  began  to  assume 
the  airs  of  independent  sovereignty,  and,  on  being 
summoned  to  Peking,  truculently  prepared  for  war. 
Ch‘ien  Lung,  too,  made  preparations,  determined  to 
hunt  down  his  adversary  “ like  a wolf,”  though  the 
nobles  of  the  court  strongly  advised  him  to  leave 
Central  Asia  to  its  own  dissensions.  The  campaign 
was  planned  by  the  Emperor  to  work  out  with  the 
precision  of  a game  of  chess,  but  the  plans  miscar- 
ried for  a time,  and  the  Chinese  statesmen  were  all 
the  more  anxious  to  give  up  the  enterprise.  Even 
Ch‘ien  Lung  hesitated  for  a time.  He  soon,  how- 
ever, recovered  his  determination,  and  fortunately 
two  generals  were  forthcoming  who  were  equal  to  the 
task  assigned  them.  These  were  the  already  famous 
Fu-ti  and  General  Chao.  The  one  was  a Manchu 
and  the  other  a Chinaman,  but  they  worked  well  to- 
gether, and  before  very  long  Amursana  was  a fugi- 
tive. He  died  of  smallpox  in  Russian  territory,  and 
so  great  was  Ch‘ien  Lung’s  desire  to  gloat  over  the 
corpse  of  his  foe,  or  perhaps  to  make  assurance  dou- 
bly sure,  that  he  insisted  for  a time  on  the  body  being 
forwarded  to  Peking.  Fortunately,  probably,  for 
the  health  of  the  Emperor,  the  Russians  proved  stub- 
born. The  victorious  generals  were  received  with 
almost  royal  honors  and  the  Emperor  went  a day’s 
journey  to  meet  them.  A curious  light  is  thrown 
upon  the  ceremonialism  of  Chinese  life  by  the  story 
that  after  the  death  of  Chao  the  Emperor  still  went 
to  visit  him.  He  had  the  body  placed  in  a chair, 
dressed  up  as  in  life,  and  addressed  the  corpse  with 


THE  ELEUTHS  PAY  HOMAGE  TO  CHTEN  LUNG 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHTEN  LUNG  227 


courteous  solicitude,  expressing  the  hope  for  a 
speedy  recovery. 

With  the  pacification  of  Kashgaria  as  un  fait  ac- 
compli Ch‘ien  Lung,  leaving  his  “ far-flung  ” frontier 
to  the  west  as  it  had  been  in  the  glorious  times  of  the 
Han  and  T‘ang  dynasties,  was  enabled  to  turn  his 
attention  to  other  problems. 

“ The  Flight  of  a Tatar  Tribe.”  One  remark- 
able result  of  the  improved  conditions  in  Central 
Asia  within  the  sphere  of  Chinese  influence  is  seen  in 
the  return  of  the  Turguts,  a story  so  graphically 
described  by  De  Quincy  in  an  essay  which  has  been 
termed  by  Dr.  David  Masson  as  a “ noble  effort  of 
historical  painting  done  with  a sweep  and  breadth 
of  poetic  imagination  entitling  it,  though  a history, 
to  rank  also  among  his  prose  phantasies.”  The 
Turguts  were  a tribe  which  had  settled  across  the 
Russian  border  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga  in  order 
to  escape  the  troubles  caused  by  the  ambitious  pro- 
jects of  Galdan.  Their  new  home  pleased  them  after 
a while  no  better  than  the  old,  and  when  they  heard 
of  the  new  era  of  peace  brought  about  by  the  con- 
quests of  Ch‘ien  Lung,  their  homesickness  rendered 
intolerable  the  exactions  of  the  Russian  government 
and  the  laws  as  to  conscription  in  which  they  had 
hitherto  acquiesced.  Thereupon  commenced  a mi- 
gration almost  without  precedent  in  the  world’s  his- 
tory. A great  multitude  of  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren, numbering  at  least  three  hundred  thousand 
souls,  secretly  set  out  to  regain  the  old  pasture  lands 
of  the  tribes  once  again  under  the  protection  of  the 
Emperors  of  China.  It  was  at  the  beginning  of 
January,  A.  D.  1771,  that  the  horde  started  east- 


228  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


wards  and  not  long  after  the  Cossacks,  apprised,  like 
Pharaoh,  of  the  flight  from  the  land  of  a multitude 
of  useful  serfs,  started  after  them  and  pursued  them 
with  fearful  slaughter.  Month  after  month,  for 
eight  months,  the  fugitives  continued  their  journe}^, 
harassed  by  enemies  and  tortured  by  thirst,  their 
ranks  thinned  continually  by  weariness  and  the 
length  of  the  way.  The  worst  experience  came  to- 
wards the  end,  when  the  Chinese  cavalry  sent  by 
Ch‘ien  Lung  was  already  approaching  to  relieve 
them.  How  the  Bashkirs  and  Kirghizes  of  the  des- 
ert swooped  down  upon  them,  how  pursuers  and  pur- 
sued alike,  slaughterers  and  slaughtered,  alike  tor- 
tured even  to  madness  by  thirst,  came  at  last  to  Lake 
Tengis ; how  all  continued  to  rush,  still  slaying  and 
being  slain,  into  the  water,  till  the  lake  was  dyed 
and  polluted  with  gore  — all  this  must  be  read  in  the 
vivid  account  of  De  Quincy  in  order  to  realize  it. 
Even  while  Turguts  and  Bashkirs  were  struggling 
together  in  frenzied  hatred,  came  down  the  Chinese 
cavalry,  and  once  again  the  slaughter,  this  time  of 
the  Bashkirs,  raged,  until  the  wild  tribes  of  the  desert 
were  driven  away  to  perish  almost  inevitably  of 
thirst,  “ a retaliatory  chastisement  more  complete 
and  absolute  than  any  which  their  swords  and  lances 
could  have  obtained,  or  human  vengeance  could  have 
devised.”  The  new  subjects  of  the  Empire  were  re- 
ceived with  every  demonstration  of  welcome,  and 
next  year  a still  further  migration  of  some  thirty 
thousand  families  followed  the  Turguts  to  enjoy  the 
beneficent  rule  of  Ch‘ien  Lung. 

War  in  Burmah.  In  A.  D.  1768  trouble  arose 
with  the  kingdom  of  Ava  or  Burmah,  and  the  Em- 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHTEN  LUNG  229 


peror  handled  the  situation  with  his  usual  thorough- 
ness. Raids  across  the  border  had  long  tried  the 
patience  of  the  Chinese  governors,  and  fugitives,  dis- 
satisfied with  the  government  on  either  side  of  the 
line,  were  only  too  ready  to  promote  complications. 
Such  complications,  however,  made  it  necessary  to 
put  an  army  in  the  field.  Several  notable  victories 
were  won  by  the  Chinese  forces,  and  the  Burmese 
commander  so  little  distinguished  himself  that  his 
master  sent  him  a woman’s  dress  to  wear,  as  more 
suitable  than  the  garb  of  a soldier.  Ere  long,  how- 
ever, the  invaders,  entangled  in  the  land,  found  them- 
selves in  difficulties,  and  on  one  occasion  the  general 
had  to  order  a sauve  qui  peut.  If  it  had  not  been  for 
the  superior  diplomacy  of  the  Chinese,  their  valor 
in  this  campaign  might  have  availed  them  little  and 
the  matter  might  have  terminated  disastrously.  So 
well,  however,  did  General  Alikwan  acquit  himself 
as  a diplomatist  that  he  saved  the  situation,  and 
Burmah  was  induced  to  enroll  herself  among  the 
tribute-bearing  nations.  Every  three  years,  hence- 
forward, the  tokens  of  submission  were  sent  to  the 
court  at  Peking,  and  this  was  permitted  even  after 
the  annexation  of  Burmah  to  Great  Britain  in  1886, 
out  of  a desire  at  that  time  not  to  open  up  new 
questions  with  China. 

Conquest  of  the  Miaotz.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  hardy  aboriginal  race  shut  up  in  the 
mountains  of  Szechwan,  which  from  time  to  time  wras 
called  upon  to  make  such  desperate  efforts  for  inde- 
pendent existence.  Ch‘ien  Lung  was  greatly  desir- 
ous to  reduce  these  brave  mountaineers  to  submission, 
and  the  pretext  of  brigandage  wras  as  good  as  any 


230  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


other.  The  reduction  was  almost  an  extermination, 
for  the  Miaotsz  made  for  the  space  of  a year  and  a 
half,  a desperate  defense  of  their  lives  and  homes. 
Even  the  women  fought  and  every  rock  was  defended 
to  the  last  foothold.  In  the  end  the  last  fortress 
was  stormed  and  the  captured  chiefs  were  sent  to  Pe- 
king. The  Emperor  sullied  ineffaceably  the  glory  of 
his  victory  by  the  murder  of  the  men  to  whom,  on 
their  surrender,  a guarantee  of  life  had  been  given, 
and  their  heads,  exposed  in  cages,  spoke  even  more 
eloquently  of  the  treachery  of  the  Manchu  than  of 
the  bravery  of  the  victor.  The  victory  was  further 
commemorated  by  a monumental  inscription,  which  is 
still  to  be  seen  under  its  yellow-tiled  roof  in  front  of 
the  great  Confucian  Temple  at  Peking.  The  monu- 
mental tablets  of  Ch‘ien  Lung  run  as  follows : 

A.  D.  1750.  Ch‘ien  Lung.  Conquest  of  the  Miao 
country. 

A.  D.  1760.  Ch‘ien  Lung.  Conquest  of  Sunga- 
ria,  the  land  of  the  Kalmucks. 

A.  D.  1760.  Ch‘ien  Lung.  Conquest  of  Muham- 
adan  Tatarv. 

A.  D.  1777.  Ch‘ien  Lung.  Conquest  of  the  Miao 
country  in  Szechwan. 

The  fortunate  general  Akwei  was  made  a duke, 
whilst  poor  Fu-ti,  in  spite  of  all  his  former  services 
rendered  to  the  state,  suffered  the  fate  of  those  who 
failed  and  was  put  to  death. 

War  ix  Tibet.  A still  further  experience  in  cam- 
paigning was  necessitated  by  the  condition  of  affairs 
in  Tibet.  The  circumstances  leading  up  to  this  sit- 
uation were  these.  The  Panshen  Lama  died,  whilst 
on  a visit  to  Peking,  of  smallpox,  and  the  Emperor 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHTEN  LUNG  231 


undertook  to  send  back  his  goods,  which  were  of  con- 
siderable value,  to  his  elder  brother.  The  body  also 
was  sent  back,  but  Ch‘ien  Lung  built  a beautiful 
white  marble  monument  over  the  clothes  of  the  de- 
ceased. The  carving  on  this  strange  memorial  has 
been  pronounced  the  most  exquisitely  beautiful  of 
any  in  Peking.  The  younger  surviving  brother  of 
the  dead  Lama  had  been  excommunicated  because  of 
his  attachment  to  the  heterodox  sect  of  “ Red  Caps,” 
but  he  at  once  claimed  the  succession  and  called  in 
the  stalwart  Himalayan  tribesman  known  as  Gurk- 
has to  his  support.  A Chinese  general  who  had  been 
sent  to  drive  out  the  marauders  found  it  easier  to 
use  other  weapons  than  those  of  war,  and  promised 
an  annual  bribe  to  the  Gurkhas  if  they  would  retire 
and  keep  out  of  Tibet  for  the  future.  Unfortu- 
nately the  wily  diplomat  provided  no  means  for  the 
fulfilment  of  his  pledge,  and  left  it  to  his  successor 
to  discover  that  such  a pledge  had  been  given.  The 
discovery,  as  might  have  been  expected,  brought  on 
war.  The  campaign  was  conducted  with  remarkable 
skill  and  success,  and  the  Gurkhas  were  expelled. 
The  Tibetans  acknowledged  themselves  vassals  of 
China  and  “ from  that  day  to  this  tribute  mis- 
sions, in  compliance  with  this  treaty,  have  with- 
out fail  wended  their  weary  way  through  the  wastes 
of  Tibet  to  Peking,  at  the  stated  intervals  agreed 
upon.”  1 

Formosa.  The  island  of  Tahvan,  or  Formosa, 
had  always  been  a problem  for  the  statesmen  of 
China,  and  most  rulers  preferred  to  leave  the  island 
severely  alone,  or  to  see  it  in  the  occupation  of  an- 
other power.  But  a local  chief  named  Lin  had  de- 


232  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 

feated  a small  Chinese  force  which  had  landed  there, 
and,  Ch‘ien  Lung’s  pride  being  at  stake,  an  army  of 
a hundred  thousand  men  was  dispatched  to  bring  the 
troublesome  dependency  again  under  Chinese  rule. 
The  work  was  done,  somewhat  perhaps  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  making  a desert  and  proclaiming  peace. 
The  victory  provided  the  top-stone  for  Ch‘ien  Lung’s 
pyramid  of  military  fame.  The  Emperor,  however, 
needed  a summit  higher  than  any  of  the  mountains  of 
China  for  the  vantage  point  from  which  he  could  re- 
cite his  poem : 

“ Beneath  my  feet  my  realm  I see 
As  in  a map  unrolled.” 

The  Macartney  Mission.  The  port  of  Canton 
had  gradually  become  a storm  center.  The  concen- 
tration of  trade  and  traders  in  this  vicinity  both 
created  and  expressed  the  grievances  which  wrere 
more  or  less  inseparable  at  this  time  from  the  pres- 
ence of  foreigners  in  China.  In  the  year  of  Ch‘ien 
Lung’s  accession  there  vrere  at  Canton  four  English, 
two  French,  two  Dutch,  one  Danish  and  one  Swedish 
vessel.  In  1742  the  first  English  warship  arrived  at 
Macao,  and  from  that  distance  surveyed  the  situa- 
tion. In  1759  Mr.  Flint,  from  Ningpo,  made  his  re- 
markable attempt  to  reach  the  august  ear  of  the  Em- 
peror on  the  subject  of  commercial  misunderstand- 
ings. The  effort  ended  in  his  own  banishment  and 
in  the  decapitation  of  the  Chinaman  who  had  written 
the  memorial.  Then  came,  in  A.  D.  1784,  the  inci- 
dent of  the  English  gunner  who  had  unintentionally 
killed  a Chinaman  wdiilst  firing  a salute.  The  unfor- 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHTEN  LUNG  233 


tunate  man  was  eventually  surrendered  to  the  Chi- 
nese authorities  and  strangled.  So  the  causes  for 
misunderstanding  multiplied  and  the  British  govern- 
ment saw  at  length  the  need  of  dealing  with  the  situa- 
tion in  order  to  protect  honest  trade  and  curb  the 
lawlessness  which  was  associated  with  that  which  was 
not  honest.  Captain  Cathcart  wras  first  selected  in 
1788,  but  died  on  the  outward  journey.  There  was 
some  inevitable  delay,  but  in  1792  the  Earl  of  Ma- 
cartney arrived  with  a large  suite  and  at  once  pre- 
pared for  the  visit  to  Peking.  Of  course,  the  Chinese 
could  hardly  appreciate  the  importance  of  interven- 
tion in  a mere  matter  of  trade.  It  was  well-nigh 
unthinkable  to  the  high  officials  at  Peking  that  mat- 
ters of  state  could  be  associated  with  commerce. 
Nevertheless,  the  Emperor  was  grateful  for  the 
moral  support  England  had  given  in  the  affair  of 
the  Gurkhas,  and  Lord  Macartney  was  most  hospit- 
ably received.  The  Emperor  entertained  his  visitors 
most  lavishly,  and  it  is  estimated  that  $850,000  was 
spent  on  the  various  entertainments.  Ch‘ien  Lung 
was  also  much  interested  in  George  Staunton,  the 
ambassador’s  page,  then  only  thirteen  years  old,  and 
the  only  member  of  the  Embassy  familiar  with  the 
Chinese  language.  Afterwards,  as  Sir  George 
Staunton,  this  favored  youth  was  able  to  write  a 
most  valuable  account  of  the  expedition.  Lord  Ma- 
cartney had  no  reason  to  be  displeased  with  his  re- 
ception, but  as  an  historian  pertinently  observes, 
“ he  did  no  business.”  Moreover,  the  Chinese  had 
taken  care  to  have  painted  on  the  sails  of  the  vessel 
which  carried  the  party  up  the  river  the  words 


234  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


“ Tribute  bearers  from  the  country  of  England .” 
Consequently,  in  the  eyes  of  the  admiring  natives, 
England  too  was  numbered  with  the  vassals.  A 
competent  writer  observes  of  Lord  Macartney’s  mis- 
sion: “ All  he  succeeded  in  exacting  from  the  Gov- 

ernment was  a permission  that  his  countrymen  might 
trade  at  Canton  on  sufferance,  as  long  as  they 
obeyed  the  orders  of  the  authorities.” 

The  Dutch  Mission.  If  the  English  had  no 
reason  to  felicitate  themselves  upon  the  results  of 
their  mission,  what  are  we  to  say  of  the  mission  of 
the  Dutch  in  the  following  year?  Van  Braam,  the 
Dutch  agent  at  Canton,  thought  it  possible  to  suc- 
ceed where  Lord  Macartney  had  all  but  openly  failed, 
but  he  really  opened  the  door  for  humiliations  such 
as  no  other  body  of  Europeans  ever  consented  to  ac- 
cept. The  chief  Commissioner  was  Isaac  Titsingh, 
and  his  story  is  one  of  incredible  servility.  As  Dr. 
Williams  puts  it,  the  ambassadors  “ were  brought  to 
the  capital  like  malefactors,  treated  when  there  like 
beggars  and  sent  back  again  to  Canton  like  mounte- 
banks.” They  were  fed  on  broken  meats  served  on 
dirty  plates,  and,  when  they  returned  to  Canton  in 
April,  1796,  they  had  nothing  upon  which  to  look 
back  except  a record  of  insults  on  the  one  hand  and 
obsequiousness  on  the  other. 

Ch‘ien  Lung’s  Interest  in  Literature.  Ch‘ien 
Lung,  like  the  English  Henry  the  Eighth,  had  been 
trained  rather  for  scholarship  than  for  a throne, 
and  on  attaining  sovereignty  kept  his  interest  in  lit- 
erature. He  earnestly  labored  for  the  perfecting  of 
his  mother  tongue,  the  Manchu,  and  had  many  trans- 
lations made  of  Chinese  books.  He  took  pains  to 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHTEN  LUNG  235 


have  the  Imperial  eloquence  perpetuated  in  monu- 
mental inscriptions,  and  in  this  way  also,  as  we  have 
seen,  commemorated  his  victories  in  Central  Asia  and 
elsewhere.  As  a poet  Ch‘ien  Lung  is  credited  with 
33,950  poems,  in  twenty-four  volumes.  These  were 
written  between  1736  and  1783,  and  wThile  the  sub- 
stance is  often  sufficiently  mediocre,  the  Emperor 
sometimes  succeeded  in  attaining  considerable  orig- 
inality of  form.  In  one  of  his  Manchu  poems  he 
used  for  the  first,  and  possibly  for  the  last,  time 
verses  which  rhymed  at  the  beginning  as  well  as  at 
the  end  of  the  lines.  The  best  known  of  the  royal 
poems  are  the  “ Eulogy  on  Mukden  ” and  the  verses 
on  Tea.  The  former,  in  praise  of  the  old  capital  of 
the  Manchus,  is  a curiosity  in  more  than  one  sense. 
It  is  written  in  Chinese  and  in  Manchu.  The  Chi- 
nese version  is  a mass  of  recondite  classical  allusions 
and  quotations,  which  make  necessary  the  services 
of  a very  expert  Chinese  literatus  to  interpret.  The 
Manchu  version  is  as  simple  as  the  other  is  obscure. 
The  poem,  moreover,  is  written  in  sixty-four  differ- 
ent scripts,  of  which  thirty-two  are  genuine  varieties 
of  the  Chinese  character  and  thirty-two  invented 
forms  of  Manchu , designed  to  correspond  with  the 
Chinese.  The  poem  on  Tea  was  composed  in  1746, 
when  the  Emperor  was  hunting  in  Tatary,  and  no 
doubt  well  disposed  towards  the  u cup  that  cheers.” 
He  had  it  inscribed  on  porcelain  cups  of  a new  sort, 
so  that  all  who  drank  might  read.  Translated  by 
Pere  Amiot,  the  poem  found  its  way  to  Paris,  where 
it  attracted  the  attention  of  Voltaire.  The  French 
poet  addressed  a poetical  epistle  to  the  royal  bard 
of  China,  which  commences  as  follows : 


236  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


“ Reqois  mes  compliments,  charmant  roi  de  la  Chine ; 
Ton  trone  est  done  place  sur  la  double  colline! 

On  sait  dans  V Occident  que,  malgre  mes  trovers, 

J’ai  tou jours  fort  aime  les  rois  qui  font  des  vers  ” 

Professor  Giles  in  his  “ Chinese  Literature  ” gives  a 
spirited  translation  of  the  song  written  by  Ch‘ien 
Lung  for  insertion  in  a play  entitled  “ Picking  up 
Gold.”  2 

The  French  missionaries  were  not  altogether  with- 
out justification  in  placing  beneath  the  portrait  of 
Ch‘ien  Lung  the  words  : 

“ Occupe  sans  relache  a tous  les  soins  divers 
D’un  gouvernement  qu  on  admire, 

Le  plus  grand  potentat  qui  soit  dans  Vunivers 
Est  le  meilleur  lettre  qui  soit  dans  son  Empire 

Festivities.  Ch‘ien  Lung  was  not,  however,  en- 
gaged all  the  time  either  in  writing  poems  or  in  mak- 
ing war.  His  reign  was  marked  by  many  great  cele- 
brations, and  the  older  he  got  the  more  he  delighted 
in  opportunities  for  elaborate  ceremony.  As  we 
have  seen,  he  celebrated  royally  the  return  of  the 
victorious  generals  from  Central  Asia. 

In  1752  he  observed  the  sixtieth  birthday  of  the 
Empress  Dowager  with  pageantry  which  filled  seven 
miles  of  streets  with  wonderful  sights, — sights,  how- 
ever, which  were  denied  to  the  people  all  along  the 
route.  These  had  perforce  to  remain  behind  closed 
shutters  and  drawn  curtains. 

In  1761  he  celebrated  with  great  eclat  his  own 
fiftieth  birthday,  and  took  advantage  of  the  occasion 
to  receive  formally  the  great  geographical  work  of 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHTEN  LUNG  237 


the  Jesuit  fathers,  Benoit  and  Hallerstein.  In  1767 
he  made  an  especially  grand  function  of  the  plowing 
ceremony.  Finally,  he  celebrated  the  attainment  of 
his  sixty  year  cycle,  the  goal  of  his  desire  from  his 
earliest  manhood,  a goal  granted  to  few  monarchs 
to  attain. 

The  Abdication  of  Ch‘ien  Lung.  With  age 
comes  sadness,  and  Ch‘ien  Lung  was  no  exception. 
He  had  lost  his  mother,  to  whom  he  had  always  given 
the  profoundest  reverence,  in  1777.  The  loss  of  his 
eldest  son,  in  whom  fine  qualities  had  been  discerned, 
followed  soon  after.  The  death  of  a trusted  prime 
minister  added  a further  blow.  All  this  was  an  in- 
timation to  Ch‘ien  Lung  that  his  own  work  was  done. 
The  primary  reason,  however,  for  his  abdication  was 
his  unwillingness  to  trespass  upon  a cycle  belonging 
to  a successor,  or  to  pass  beyond  the  years  of  the 
reign  of  K‘ang  Hsi,  his  illustrious  grandfather.  The 
abdication  took  place  quietly  and  Ch‘ien  Lung  lived 
three  years  longer  to  watch  over  the  early  career  of 
his  successor.  The  reign  thus  brought  to  a voluntary 
close  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  greatest  in  all  Chi- 
nese history  and  its  successes  were  due  quite  as  much 
to  the  genius  of  the  Emperor  as  to  his  good  fortune. 
He  was  indefatigable  in  his  attention  to  business  and 
often,  at  the  age  of  eighty,  rose  in  the  middle  of  the 
night,  however  rigorous  the  season,  for  the  holding 
of  audiences,  a practice  which  some  of  the  mission- 
aries and  foreign  ambassadors  were  honest  enough  to 
acknowledge  inconvenient.  He  made  great  efforts 
to  avert  the  mischief  caused  by  the  rising  of  the 
Huang-ho,  visited  the  southern  provinces  six  times, 
was  generous  in  the  remission  of  taxes  during  periods 


238  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


of  public  calamity,  and  severe  in  his  punishment  of 
unfaithful  officials.  He  was  prejudiced  against  the 
Muhamadans  of  the  northwestern  provinces  and  is 
said  to  have  contemplated  at  one  time  a general  mas- 
sacre. Nevertheless,  he  had  a Muhamadan  wife  and 
loved  her  so  well  that  he  built  for  her  a dwelling  of 
two  stories  so  arranged  that  she  might  face  both 
the  mosque  across  the  street  and  her  native  Turkes- 
tan at  one  and  the  same  time.  Ch‘ien  Lung  also 
took  some  measures,  ineffectively,  as  it  happened, 
for  the  suppression  of  the  secret  societies  which  had 
become  especially  troublesome  about  A.  D.  1793.  In 
the  words  of  the  Chinese  proverb  he  “ stirred  the 
cane-brakes  and  roused  the  snake.”  From  this  half- 
measure his  successor  was  destined  to  suffer  severely. 


NOTES 


1.  Douglas,  “ China,”  p.  171. 

2.  Giles,  “ Chinese  Literature,”  p.  389. 


239 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG 
A.  D.  1796-1820. 

The  reign  of  Chia  CKing  — the  downfall  of  Ho 
shen — the  rectitude  of  Sung  — the  Secret  Societies 

— conspiracies  against  the  Emperor  — national  ca- 
lamities — “ the  Foam  of  the  Sea  ” — the  Opium 
question  — the  Amherst  Mission  — Robert  Morrison 

— Thomas  Manning  — death  of  the  Emperor. 

The  Reign  of  Chia  Ch‘ing.  The  Tai  Ch‘ing  dy- 
nasty forms  no  exception  to  the  general  rule,  which 
finds  such  frequent  exemplification  in  the  dynastic 
history  of  China,  that  the  strong  men  fought  for  and 
maintained  the  Empire  whilst  the  weak  ones  brought 
it  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  The  first  century  and  a half 
of  Manchu  rule  was  a period  of  ever  increasing  glory 
and  success ; the  last  century  was  an  era  of  disaster 
during  which  the  thread  suspending  the  sword  of 
Damocles  was  wearing  ever  thinner.  A prediction 
respecting  the  dynasty  ran  somewhat  as  follows : 

“ Over  the  land  of  peace  and  rest  trouble  rises  like 
the  tide;  and  the  year  sixteen  demands  that  we  pre- 
pare on  every  side.  Now  await  the  coming  years 
of  Lungshay  and  stalking  Ma,  when  five  nations  will 
convulse  our  flowery  land.”  Whatever  be  the  astro- 
nomical conjunction  here  designated,  the  time  of 

240 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG 


241 


trouble  was  now  at  hand  and  largely  through  the 
44  five  ” nations,  taking  five  in  its  Chinese  sense  of  the 
perfect  number.  Almost  all  our  information  as  to 
the  reign  must  necessarily  be  derived  from  outside 
sources,  since  the  dynastic  history  of  the  Manchus 
has  yet  to  be  published.  M.  Remusat  speaks  of  the 
Tung  hwa  lu  (“  Chronicle  of  the  Eastern  Flower  ”), 
a work  in  manuscript  in  sixteen  volumes,  as  the  sole 
Chinese  written  authority  for  the  history  as  late  as 
the  reign  of  Chia  Ch4ing.  Fortunately,  the  time  is 
sufficiently  near  our  own  to  obtain  some  idea  of  its 
general  character.  Moreover,  the  record  is  a some- 
what dismal  one,  the  record  of  a time  whose  troubles 
were  fitly  enough  presaged  by  the  appearance  of  a 
great  comet,  or  44  broom-tailed  star,”  which  hung,  we 
are  told  menacingly  in  the  heavens  for  twelve  months 
from  the  time  of  Chia  Ch4ing’s  accession.  Beneath 
that  menace  Chia  Ch‘ing,  44  churlish,  sordid  and  un- 
couth,” begirt  himself  for  the  stupendous  task  of 
government  bequeathed  to  him  by  his  illustrious  an- 
cestors. 

The  Downfall  of  Ho  shen.  A serious  loss  sus- 
tained by  the  new  sovereign  soon  after  his  assump- 
tion of  power  was  that  of  the  great  Manchu  minister 
Ho  shen.  He  had  risen  from  a very  humble  station 
and  had  attracted  the  notice  of  Ch4ien  Lung  because 
of  his  good  looks  whilst  acting  as  a guard  at  the 
palace  gates.  Happily  he  had  other  qualities  in 
addition  to  his  good  looks,  and  ere  the  end  of  Ch4ien 
Lung’s  reign  had  become  almost  what  Cardinal  Wol- 
sey  was  to  Henry  VIII.  Like  Wolsey,  too,  he  had 
his  fall,  though  not  till  the  accession  of  a new  mon- 
arch. Too  powerful  to  be  at  once  assailed,  Ho  shen 


242  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


found  his  position  gradually  sapped  and  undermined 
by  his  detractors,  and  his  appointment  as  super- 
intendent of  the  obsequies  of  Ch‘ien  Lung  gave 
opportunity  enough  for  charges  of  corruption. 
Sixteen  articles  of  impeachment  were  drawn  up,  most 
of  them  frivolous  enough,  but  there  was  sufficient 
evidence  of  his  self-enrichment  to  condemn  him,  and 
he  was  graciously  permitted  to  be  his  own  execu- 
tioner. His  private  fortune  which  was  estimated  at 
the  huge  figure  of  $105,000,000,  was  confiscated. 

The  Rectitude  of  Sung.  Another  famous 
statesman  was,  with  all  his  ups  and  downs,  more 
fortunate.  This  was  Sung  Yiin,  who  had  risen  from 
a petty  government  clerkship  to  membership  in  the 
Great  Council.  In  this  capacity  he  was  chosen  to 
accompany  Lord  Macartney  on  his  “ tribute  bear- 
ing ” mission  to  Peking.  He  acted  throughout  with 
great  tact  and  had  the  unusual  luck  to  please  both 
sides.  His  acceptance,  however,  of  presents  from 
the  English  in  recognition  of  his  courtesy  whilst  en- 
gaged as  escort,  drew  upon  him  the  anger  of  his 
government.  The  presents  were  returned  and  he 
was  degraded.  Further  trouble  came  through  his 
outspoken  remonstrances  with  the  Emperor.  With 
great  courage  Sung  presented  himself  before  His 
Majesty  and  upbraided  him  with  his  vicious  and  ex- 
travagant life,  spent  rather  with  actors  than  with 
men  of  dignity  and  learning.  The  Chinese  ruler  was 
no  more  pleased  than  was  Herod  with  John  the  Bap- 
tist and  indignantly  asked  what  punishment  was  due 
to  a man  guilty  of  such  audacity.  Sung  replied 
quite  coolly,  “ Quartering.”  Asked  to  name  an- 
other mode  of  death  a trifle  less  dishonorable,  the 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG 


243 


minister  replied,  “ Beheading.”  Still  again  inter- 
rogated, he  answered,  “ Strangling.”  By  this  time 
the  Emperor’s  wrath  was  mollified  and  Sung  ob- 
tained the  applause  due  to  his  rectitude.  Neverthe- 
less, lest  he  should  approach  his  sovereign  too  fre- 
quently with  ill-timed  remonstrances,  he  was  sent 
away  to  Mongolia.  . Vicissitudes  of  fortune  con- 
tinued, and  by  A.  D.  1819  the  once  powerful  Censor 
had  been  reduced  to  a mere  lieutenancy  among  the 
bannermen.  Then  in  1820,  when  Chia  Ch‘ing’s  fu- 
neral was  being  celebrated  in  Peking,  the  new  Em- 
peror, Tao  Kuang,  following  his  father’s  coffin 
between  long  lines  of  officials,  suddenly  caught  sight 
of  the  unfortunate  Sung  standing  humbly  in  the 
throng.  He  went  aside  and  embraced  him,  weeping, 
and  soon  after  restored  him  to  rank  and  to  the  gov- 
ernorship of  Jehol.  From  that  time  onwards  Sung 
lived  prosperously  until  his  death  in  1835. 

The  Secret  Societies.  The  entire  reign  of  Chia 
Ch‘ing  was  disturbed  by  the  agitations  of  the  various 
secret  societies.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  the 
south.  The  whole  valley  of  the  Si  Kiang  was  a 
center  of  intense  political  and  religious  unrest  for 
many  years.  The  government  maintained  the  great- 
est severity  against  the  White  Lotus,  the  Triads, 
the  Society  of  Heavenly  Reason  and  such  like  orders, 
but  without  much  result.  In  1801  the  throne  de- 
creed the  summary  execution  of  all  members  of  the 
societies  engaged  in  pillage.  In  1810  the  people  of 
Fuhkien  were  warned  that  if  they  favored  the  Triad 
movement  the  severest  penalties  would  be  visited 
upon  them.  The  Government  measures  in  this  direc- 
tion cost,  we  are  told,  the  sum  of  100,000,000  taels, 


244  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


and  in  one  province  alone  twenty  or  thirty  thousand 
persons  are  said  to  have  been  executed.  Ten  thou- 
sand condemned  criminals  were  in  the  prisons  at  one 
time  and  so  great  was  the  fear  of  the  Government 
that  meetings  of  more  than  five  persons  were  pro- 
claimed as  seditious. 

Conspiracies  Against  the  Emperor.  In  two 
conspiracies  organized  by  the  secret  societies  the 
Emperor  nearly  lost  his  life.  The  first  was  in  1803, 
when  many  persons  in  high  estate,  including  even 
relatives  of  the  Emperor,  were  involved.  Even  more 
keen  than  the  dagger  of  the  assassin  was  to  the 
sovereign  the  indifference  with  which  the  whole  affair 
was  regarded  at  court  and  in  the  country.  It 
rankled  deeply  that  hardly  any  one  rallied  to  the 
sovereign’s  side.  “ It  is  this  indifference,”  he  said, 
“ rather  than  the  poignard  of  the  assassin  which 
hurts  me  most.”  The  conspiracy  of  1813  was  more 
serious  still.  An  insurrection  organized  by  the 
Heavenly  Reason  and  White  Lotus  Societies  broke 
out  in  Honan  and  Chihli;  many  cities  were  taken  by 
storm  and  in  broad  daylight  a party  of  conspirators 
entered  the  royal  palace  and  fought  body  to  body 
with  the  guards.  The  Emperor  coming  out  was 
seized  by  the  throat  and  it  would  have  gone  hard 
with  him  had  not  the  prince  Mienning  (the  future 
Emperor  Tao  Kuang)  shot  two  of  the  assailants 
with  a matchlock.  A third  was  slain  by  a nephew 
(or  cousin)  and  by  this  time  the  soldiers  arrived. 
For  his  valor  on  this  occasion  the  prince  Mienning 
was  nominated  heir  to  the  throne. 

National  Calamities.  The  unrest  of  the  pop- 
ulace is  only  too  easy  to  understand  when  we  have 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG 


245 


our  attention  drawn  to  the  terrible  devastation  of 
the  land  by  hurricane  and  flood,  especially  when  we 
remember  the  intimate  connection  the  Chinese  have 
always  perceived  between  physical  disasters  and  bad 
government.  The  great  drought  of  1817  caused  the 
Board  of  Punishments  to  consult  together  as  to 
whether  they  had  been  properly  fulfilling  their 
duties.  They  drew  up  a document  in  which  the  hope 
was  expressed  that  Nature  would  soon  reestablish 
her  proper  order.  The  Emperor  himself,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  old  customs,  was  moved  to  self-exami- 
nation and  confession  of  sins  for  himself  and  for  his 
people.  Some  sentences  are  worth  quoting:  “The 

remissness  and  sloth  of  the  officers  of  government 
constitute  an  evil  which  has  long  been  accumulating. 
It  is  not  the  evil  of  a day ; for  several  years  I have 
given  the  most  pressing  admonitions  on  the  subject, 
and  have  punished  many  cases  which  have  been  dis- 
covered, so  that  recently  there  appears  a little  im- 
provement and  for  several  seasons  the  weather  has 
been  favorable.  The  drought  this  season  is  perhaps 
not  entirely  on  this  account.  I have  meditated 
upon  it  and  am  persuaded  that  the  reason  why  the 
azure  Heavens  above  manifested  disapprobation  bv 
withholding  rain  for  a few  hundred  miles  only  around 
the  capital,  is  that  the  fifty  and  more  rebels  who 
escaped  are  secreted  somewhere  near  Peking. 
Hence  it  is  that  fertile  vapors  are  fastbound  and 
the  felicitous  harmony  of  the  seasons  interrupted.”  1 
In  spite  of  all  this,  storms  and  floods  followed  upon 
the  drought,  and  the  only  reason  the  perplexed  Em- 
peror could  assign  for  the  visitation  was  that  per- 
haps, since  the  storms  had  come  from  the  southeast, 


246  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


there  were  officials  in  that  direction  who  had  “ ex- 
cited the  ire  of  heaven.” 

“ The  Foam  of  the  Sea.”  In  addition  to  the 
sufferings  entailed  by  the  rise  of  the  secret  societies 
and  the  convulsions  of  unquiet  Nature,  were  those 
brought  upon  the  southern  provinces  by  the  pirates. 
The  estuary  of  the  Si  Kiang  has  always  enjoyed 
the  sinister  reputation  of  being  the  most  pirate- 
infested  water  in  the  world.  Even  now  merchant- 
men at  times  require  an  escort  and  the  exposure  of 
pirates’  heads  in  baskets,  or  the  bricking  up  of 
pirates  in  chimneys,  has  so  far  failed  to  deter  these 
rovers  of  the  sea  from  the  pursuit  of  their  calling. 
Chia  Ch‘ing’s  reign  furnished  unlimited  opportun- 
ity for  the  display  of  their  daring.  Under  two 
adventurous  leaders,  Ching  Yih  and  Chang  Pau,  six 
hundred  junks  ravaged  the  coasts  of  Kwangtung 
for  several  years  and  made  the  Pearl  River  so  dan- 
gerous that  the  Governor  of  Canton  himself  trans- 
ferred his  residence  to  Macao.  In  the  course  of 
these  years  two  Englishmen,  Messrs.  Turner  and 
Glaspoole,  were  made  prisoners  and  their  capture 
proved  in  part  the  undoing  of  the  sea  robbers.  For 
the  prisoners  utilized  their  enforced  leisure  to  learn 
a good  deal  respecting  the  organization  of  the 
pirates  which  they  were  able  subsequently  to  turn 
to  good  account.  Eventually  the  two  chiefs  were 
alienated  and  the  government  succeeded  in  taking 
advantage  of  the  quarrel.  The  assistance  of  the 
English  was  also  invoked  on  the  occasion  of  the 
coming  of  the  Siamese  tribute  by  sea.  This  was  a 
prize  eagerly  awaited  by  the  robbers,  but  the  ship 
Mercury  scattered  them  most  effectually  and  for 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG  247 


once  the  foreigners  earned  the  gratitude  of  the  Chi- 
nese officials.  44  The  story  of  those  disturbed  times,” 
says  Dr.  Wells  Williams,  44  to  this  day  affords  a 
frequent  subject  for  the  tales  of  old  people  in  that 
region  and  the  same  waters  are  still  infested  by  4 the 
foam  of  the  sea,’  as  the  Chinese  term  these  free- 
booters.” 

The  Opium  Question.  As  though  the  questions 
already  at  issue  between  the  merchants  trading  at 
Canton  and  the  Provincial  and  National  Govern- 
ments were  not  sufficiently  bristling  with  difficulties, 
another  question  now  arose  in  an  acute  form  for  the 
first  time.  This  was  the  question  as  to  the  trade 
in  opium.  The  poppy,  according  to  Dr.  Edkins,  is 
mentioned  in  Chinese  books  as  far  back  as  the  Eighth 
Century.  It  was  probably  introduced  by  the  Arabs 
and  prized  originally  for  its  flowers  which  were 
esteemed  by  the  Chinese  next  to  those  of  the  peony. 
Later  on,  the  medicinal  properties  of  the  poppy 
were  discovered,  but  it  was  probably  not  till  the 
introduction  of  tobacco  from  the  Philippines  in 
A.  D.  1620  that  the  habit  of  smoking  opium  com- 
menced. The  earliest  practice  was  to  mix  some  por- 
tion of  the  opium  with  the  tobacco.  The  vicious 
habit  became  noticeable  first  in  Amoy,  which  was 
the  port  of  entry  for  Manila,  and  in  Formosa.  A 
book  of  the  time,  quoted  by  Edkins,  describes  the 
ill  effects  which  were  perceived.  44  Depraved  young 
men  without  any  fixed  occupation  used  to  meet  to- 
gether by  night  to  smoke:  it  grew  to  be  a custom 
with  them.  ...  In  order  to  tempt  new  smokers  to 
come,  no  charge  was  made  the  first  time.  After 
some  time  they  could  not  stay  away  and  would  come 


248  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


even  if  they  forfeited  all  their  property.  Smokers 
were  able  to  remain  awake  the  whole  night,  and  re- 
joiced as  an  aid  to  sensual  indulgence.  Afterwards 
they  found  themselves  beyond  the  possibility  of  cure. 
...  It  is  truly  sad  to  reflect  on  this.”  Edicts  pro- 
hibiting the  trade  were  issued  from  A.  D.  1729 
onwards  but  the  efforts  made  to  stamp  it  out 
though  undoubtedly  sincere,  were  without  avail. 
The  traffic  remained  in  Portuguese  hands  till  1773 
when  Clive’s  conquest  of  Bengal  led  to  the  associ- 
ation of  the  East  India  Company  with  the  unhappy 
business.  With  a curious  casuistry  the  Company 
manufactured  the  drug  in  India  expressly  for  Chi- 
nese consumption  but,  on  their  attention  being 
drawn  to  the  pernicious  effects  of  opium  smoking, 
they  gave  orders  that  no  ships  belonging  to  the  Com- 
pany should  take  any  to  China.  After  the  close  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century,  says  Capt.  Brinkley,  “ they 
never  carried  an  ounce  of  it  in  their  own  vessels.” 
The  responsibility  for  the  demoralizing  situation 
created  must  be  shared  by  the  East  India  Company 
with  the  smugglers  who  defied  all  law,  foreign  and 
Chinese  alike,  first  from  Macao  and  later  from  Lin- 
tin ; with  the  hong  merchants  who  evaded  all  regula- 
tions for  restricting  the  sale  of  the  drug,  and  with 
the  Chinese  officials  who  were  themselves  frequently 
the  slaves  of  the  habit  and  at  least  disposed  to  make 
illegitimate  profit  by  its  introduction.  This  con- 
nivance rendered  all  the  edicts  issued  from  Peking 
futile  and  even  farcical. 

The  Amherst  Mission.  Foreign  relations  were 
unsatisfactory  throughout  the  reign  of  Chia  Ch‘ing. 
He  was  himself  personally  antipathetic  to  foreign- 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG 


249 


ers,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  single  episode  of  his 
expulsion  of  Pere  Amiot,  after  the  latter  had  resided 
in  Peking  for  thirty  years.  Still,  apart  from  the 
opium  question,  the  relation  of  foreign  nations  to 
China  was  provocative  and  vexatious.  War  was 
proceeding  between  France  and  England  and  the 
parties  to  the  conflict  seemed  to  consider  Chinese 
territory  as  a kind  of  44  Tom  Tiddler’s  ground.” 
At  least  that  is  the  only  interpretation  we  can  give 
to  the  fact  that  in  spite  of  the  Chinese  claim  to  sov- 
ereignty in  Macao  (leased  to  Portugal),  England 
seized  the  place  in  1802  to  prevent  its  being  seized 
by  France  and  repeated  the  occupation  in  1808. 
Later,  the  war  with  America  took  place  and  English 
cruisers  played  hide-and-seek  with  American  mer- 
chantmen in  Chinese  waters  without  scruple.  This 
almost  inevitably  led  to  protests  on  the  part  of 
China  and,  when  these  were  ineffectual,  to  inter- 
ference with  English  trade  in  Canton.  Then  the 
necessity  of  supplying  the  teacups  of  England  with 
the  national  beverage  led  to  the  suggestion  of  an- 
other Mission,  modeled  after  that  of  Lord  Macart- 
ney. This  was  headed  by  Lord  Amherst,  who  had 
formerly  been  Governor  General  of  India.  The 
party  included  as  interpreter  the  famous  missionary, 
Robert  Morrison,  and  the  picturesque  traveler, 
Thomas  Manning.  It  started  for  Peking  in  1816 
and  reached  the  capital  on  August  28.  Impartial 
historians  have  summed  up  the  result  in  one  preg- 
nant word,  44  mismanagement.”  Others  have  talked 
about  the  44  ignorance,  pride,  isolation  and  audac- 
ity ” of  the  Chinese.  The  truth  is  that  the  man- 
darins of  the  court  did  not  want  the  mission  to 


250  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


succeed,  and  took  no  pains  to  apprise  the  Emperor 
of  the  situation.  The  Emperor  himself  was  not 
necessarily  to  blame  for  fixing  the  hour  of  the  inter- 
view at  a time  inconvenient  to  Lord  Amherst.  Chi- 
nese sovereigns  were  accustomed  to  giving  audiences 
at  unearthly  hours,  and  it  probably  did  not  occur 
to  Chia  Ch4ing  that  he  was  insulting  his  guest  by 
asking  him  to  appear  immediately  on  arrival  and 
before  his  uniform  had  arrived.  Possibly  Lord 
Amherst,  who  had  for  a time  held  out  against  Man- 
ning as  interpreter  because  he  deemed  the  latter’s 
flowing  beard  44  incongruous,”  2 was  over-fastidious 
in  his  insistence  on  the  niceties  of  diplomatic  eti- 
quette. At  this  distance  it  seems  a pity  that  the 
whole  mission  should  have  failed  because  of  differ- 
ences of  this  kind.  In  any  case,  insistence  on  punc- 
tilio rendered  the  accomplishment  of  any  results 
through  the  mission  impossible.  It  retired  without 
effecting  even  an  interview  with  majesty.  A valu- 
able opportunity  for  promoting  mutual  understand- 
ing was  missed,  and,  indeed,  extra  reasons  for  mis- 
understanding accumulated.  The  Emperor  visited 
with  severe  penalties,  when  it  was  too  late,  the  ob- 
structive mandarins,  but  possibly  these  had  not  very 
seriously  misinterpreted  the  Emperor’s  own  feelings 
towards  the  foreigners.  At  least  his  letter  ad- 
dressed at  an  earlier  period  to  King  George  III 
begins  with  this  sentence:  44  Your  Majesty’s  king- 

dom is  at  a remote  distance  beyond  the  seas,  but  is 
observant  of  its  duties  and  obedient  to  our  laws,  be- 
holding from  afar  the  glory  of  our  Empire  and  re- 
spectfully admiring  the  perfection  of  our  govern- 
ment.” The  letter  ends  with  this  other  sentence,  a 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG  251 


very  polite  way  of  saying,  “ Ambassadors  not 
wanted”:  “ With  regard  to  those  of  your  Maj- 

esty’s subjects  who  for  a long  course  of  years  have 
been  in  the  habit  of  trading  with  our  Empire,  we 
must  observe  to  you  that  our  Celestial  Government 
regards  all  persons  and  nations  with  eyes  of  charity 
and  benevolence,  and  always  treats  and  considers 
your  subjects  with  the  utmost  indulgence  and  affec- 
tion ; on  their  account,  therefore,  there  can  be  no 
place  or  occasion  for  the  exertions  of  Your 
Majesty’s  Government.”  A somewhat  similar  re- 
buff was  given  to  Russia  in  1805. 

Robert  Morrison.  More  than  one  foreigner  at 
this  epoch  has  a rightful  place  in  a history  of  China, 
by  the  testimony  of  the  Chinese  themselves  and  out 
of  recognition  of  the  place  they  occupied  whilst  alive 
and  the  influence  they  were  destined  to  exert  after 
death.  One  of  these  is  assuredly  the  great  pioneer 
missionary,  Robert  Morrison,  who  was  accepted  for 
service  in  China  in  1805  by  the  London  Missionary 
Society  and  commenced  forthwith  that  devoted  study 
of  the  language  which  has  made  his  labors  so  useful 
to  so  many  successors.  He  arrived  in  China  in 
1807,  after  two  years’  study  of  Chinese  manuscripts 
in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  1809  was  appointed 
translator  to  the  East  India  Company.  It  is  a 
curious  sign  of  the  timidity  with  which  missionary 
work  was  at  this  time  approached  that  when  the 
Directors  of  the  East  India  Company  learned  that 
Morrison  was  the  author  of  religious  tracts,  they 
ordered  his  dismissal,  fearing  that  Chinese  prejudice 
would  be  aroused  against  the  Company.  Fortu- 
nately the  agents  on  the  spot  had  come  to  know 


252  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Morrison’s  value  and  secured  the  retention  of  his 
services.  There  is  no  space  here  for  an  account  of 
the  labors  of  Morrison  as  missionary  and  as  trans- 
lator. Suffice  it  to  say  that  Professor  Julien  de- 
scribes the  “ Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language  ” 
as  “ without  dispute  the  best  Chinese  dictionary  com- 
posed in  a European  language.”  Morrison  died  in 
1834  and  was  buried  at  Macao,  where  he  shares  with 
Camoens  the  pleasanter  associations  of  the  place. 

Thomas  Manning.  Less  prominent,  but  still 
worthy  of  mention  is  Manning,  who  is  indirectly 
known  to  all  readers  of  Charles  Lamb’s  “ Disserta- 
tion on  Roast  Pig and  its  reference  to  a certain 
Chinese  manuscript  which  “ my  friend  M.  was  oblig- 
ing enough  to  read  and  explain  to  me.”  Manning 
studied  Chinese  at  Cambridge  and  Paris  and  was 
by  some  regarded  as  the  first  Chinese  scholar  in 
Europe.  He  went  out  to  Canton  as  a physician  in 
1807  and  made  several  attempts  to  reach  the  in- 
terior of  China.  His  travels  in  Tibet,  and  how  he 
became  the  first  white  visitor  to  the  forbidden  city 
of  Lhassa  are  mentioned  by  the  Abbe  Hue.  His 
position  as  junior  secretary  with  Lord  Amherst’s 
expedition  has  already  been  alluded  to.  But  in 
truth  a romantic  career  such  as  that  of  Manning 
cannot  be  dealt  with  in  a paragraph.  Our  last  im- 
pression of  him  is  as  living  in  a large  unfurnished 
house  in  England  with  “ a vast  library  of  Chinese 
books  ” and  a roomful  of  visitors  drawn  together 
by  his  delightful  conversation.  He  died  in  1840 
and  was  buried  in  the  abbey  at  Bath. 

Death  of  Chia  Chsing.  The  Emperor,  whose 
excessive  devotion  to  pleasure  had  for  a long  while 


THE  REIGN  OF  CHIA  CHTNG 


253 


made  him  a subject  for  animadversion,  if  not  an 
object  of  contempt,  to  the  best  minds  of  China,  died 
on  September  2,  1820,  at  the  age  of  sixty-one  and 
after  a troubled  reign  of  twenty-five  years.  His 
will,  wdiich  has  been  translated  by  Morrison,  left  the 
throne  to  his  second  son,  Mienning,  known  as  the 
Emperor  Tao  Kuang. 


NOTES 


1.  S.  Wells  Williams,  “ Middle  Kingdom,”  I,  p.  465. 

2.  Cf.  Chas.  Lamb’s  letter  to  Manning  (Letters  i 
195):  “Shave  yourself  oftener.  . . . Shave  the  upper 
lip.  Go  about  like  an  European.” 


254 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 
A.  D.  1820-1850. 

Tao  Kuang — the  Edicts  of  Tao  Kuang — polit- 
ical troubles  — events  in  Canton — War  with  Great 
Britain  — the  Treaty  of  Nanking  and  its  results  — 
the  situation  at  Canton  — death  of  Tao  Kuang. 

Tao  Kuang.  Such  was  the  name  assumed  by  the 
Prince  Mienning  who  had,  as  we  have  seen,  earned 
the  gratitude  of  his  father  and  the  more  dubious 
heritage  of  the  Dragon  Throne  by  his  gallant  de- 
fense of  Chia  Ch‘ing  against  the  conspirators  of 
1813.  He  was  regarded  by  those  who  knew  him  as 
naturally  rather  stupid  or  else  very  unnaturally  re- 
served. It  really  seems  that  he  suffered  consider- 
able deterioration  as  time  went  on.  This  may  have 
been  the  result  of  the  various  quackeries  with  which 
he  is  said  to  have  experimented  in  order  to  increase 
his  physical  strength.  These,  we  are  told,  left  him 
eventually  toothless  and  hollow-cheeked.  He  is  de- 
scribed as  tall,  lank  and  dark-complexioned.  Yet 
he  had  evidently  more  character  than  his  father, 
and  could  display  on  occasion  a resolution  which  his 
detractors  might  even  regard  as  obstinacy.  He  was 
probably  sincere  enough  in  his  early  efforts  to 
cleanse  the  Augean  stable  of  the  court  and  may  well 

have  grown  discouraged  at  the  apparent  futility  of 

255 


256  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


the  task.  Thence  he  sank  into  habits  of  debauchery 
which  sadly  disappointed  the  hopes  which  a cred- 
itable beginning  had  inspired.  His  life,  moreover, 
was  saddened  by  family  troubles.  One  of  his  sons 
was  a scapegrace  and  reprobate,  devoted  to  the  use 
of  opium,  and  the  Emperor  is  said  to  have  slain  him 
with  a blow  struck  in  a moment  of  uncontrollable 
anger  — a moment  vainly  regretted  forever  after. 

The  Edicts  of  Tao  Kuang.  We  should  prob- 
ably be  seriously  misled  if  we  formed  our  ideas  of 
Chinese  history  from  the  Imperial  Edicts,  yet  they 
now  and  then  throw  a good  deal  of  light  on  the  con- 
dition of  affairs  in  China,  as  viewed  from  the  Court 
point  of  view.  We  are  compelled  to  say  so  much 
in  these  chapters  of  foreign  affairs  that  it  is  not 
unfitting  to  quote  from  some  of  the  Edicts  of  Tao 
Kuang,  as  translated  by  Dr.  Wells  Williams. 

1.  In  his  first  edict  the  Emperor  refers  to  his 
deceased  father  in  the  following  terms : — 

“ His  late  Majesty  who  has  now  gone  the  great 
journey,  governed  all  under  Heaven’s  canopy 
twenty-five  years,  exercising  the  utmost  caution  and 
industry.  Nor  evening  nor  morning  was  he  ever 
idle.  He  assiduously  aimed  at  the  best  possible  rule 
and  hence  his  government  was  illustrious  and  ex- 
cellent ; the  court  and  the  country  felt  the  deepest 
reverence  and  the  stillness  of  profound  awe.  . . . 
But  in  the  midst  of  a hope  that  this  glorious  reign 
would  be  long  protracted  and  the  help  of  Heaven 
would  be  received  many  days,  unexpectedly,  on  de- 
scending to  bless  by  His  Majesty’s  presence,  Lwan 
yang  the  dragon  charioteer,  became  a guest  on  high 
. . . My  sacred  and  indulgent  Father  had,  in  the 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


257 


year  that  he  began  to  rule  alone,  silently  settled 
that  the  divine  utensil  should  devolve  on  my  con- 
temptible person.  I,  knowing  the  feebleness  of  my 
virtue,  at  first  felt  much  afraid  I should  not  be  com- 
petent to  the  office;  but  on  reflecting  that  the  sages, 
my  ancestors,  have  left  to  posterity  their  plans ; that 
His  late  Majesty  has  laid  the  duty  on  me  — and 
Heaven’s  throne  should  not  be  long  vacant  — I 
have  done  violence  to  my  feelings  . . . and  on  the 
27th  of  the  eighth  moon  I purpose  devoutly  to  an- 
nounce the  event  to  Heaven,  to  Earth,  to  my  ances- 
tors and  to  the  gods  of  the  land  and  the  grain,  and 
shall  then  sit  down  on  the  Imperial  throne.”  1 

2.  A second  extract  refers  to  the  great  drought 
of  1832.  After  various  efforts  to  turn  aside  the 
wTrath  and  conciliate  the  favor  of  Heaven,  the  Em- 
peror published  a memorial  of  which  the  following 
is  an  extract: 

“ Summer  is  past  and  no  rain  has  fallen.  Not 
only  do  agriculture  and  human  beings  feel  the  dire 
calamity,  but  also  beasts  and  insects,  herbs  and  trees, 
almost  cease  to  live.  I,  the  minister  of  Heaven, 
am  placed  over  mankind  and  am  responsible  for  keep- 
ing the  world  in  order  and  tranquilizing  the  people. 
Although  it  is  now  impossible  for  me  to  sleep  or  eat 
with  composure,  although  I am  scorched  with  grief 
and  tremble  with  anxiety,  still,  after  all,  no  genial 
and  copious  showers  have  been  obtained.” 

The  Emperor  proceeds  to  acknowledge : “ The 

sole  cause  is  the  daily  deeper  atrocity  of  my  sins ; 
but  little  sincerity  and  little  devotion.  Hence  I 
have  been  unable  to  move  Heaven’s  heart  and  bring 
down  abundant  blessings.”  Then  follows  a detailed 


258  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


self-examination  in  which  the  monarch  asks  himself 
the  most  heart-searching  questions.  He  concludes : 
“ Prostrate  I beg  Imperial  Heaven  to  pardon  my 
ignorance  and  stupidity  and  to  grant  me  self-reno- 
vation ; for  myriads  of  innocent  people  are  involved 
by  me,  the  One  Man.  My  sins  are  so  numerous  it 
is  difficult  to  escape  from  them.  Summer  is  passed 
and  autumn  arrived.”  2 

3.  A third  edict  still  may  be  quoted,  this  time 
issued  for  the  purpose  of  bestowing  honor  upon  the 
widow  of  Chia  Chfing  on  the  attainment  of  her  six- 
tieth birthday.  It  runs  in  part  as  follows : — 

“ In  the  first  month  of  the  present  winter  occurs 
the  sixtieth  anniversary  of  her  Majesty’s  sacred 
natal  day.  At  the  opening  of  the  happy  period,  the 
sun  and  the  moon  shed  their  united  genial  influences 
upon  it.  When  commencing  anew  the  revolution  of 
the  sexagenary  cycle,  the  honor  thereof  adds  in- 
crease to  her  felicity.  Looking  upwards  and  behold- 
ing her  glory,  we  repeat  our  congratulations  and 
announce  the  event  to  Heaven,  to  Earth,  to  our  an- 
cestors and  to  the  patron  gods  of  the  Empire.”  3 

Political  Troubles.  In  spite  of  all  these  high- 
flown  felicitations,  the  Empire  was,  during  the  reign 
of  Tao  Kuang,  rarely  free  from  political  trouble  of 
one  kind  or  another.  The  first  uprising  was  in 
Turkestan  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kashgar,  about 
1825.  It  was  suspected  from  what  was  to  be  seen 
of  the  administration  of  the  Chinese  governors  that 
the  virility  which  had  characterized  the  spacious 
times  of  K‘ang  Hsi  and  Ch‘ien  Lung  was  a thing  of 
the  past.  Under  the  impulse  of  some  such  instinct, 
or  in  obedience  to  their  own  restless  moods,  the  tribes 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


259 


rallied  around  one  Jehangir,  a descendant  of  the  old 
chiefs  or  Khojans,  and  the  Chinese  garrison  was 
massacred.  A large  army  was  immediately  de- 
spatched, and  after  an  exasperating  and  protracted 
campaign,  which  cost  the  government  some  ten  mil- 
lion ounces  of  silver,  Jehangir  was  captured  and  sent 
to  Peking.  Here  he  expiated  his  failure  by  suffer- 
ing a cruel  and  lingering  death. 

The  rebellion  in  Formosa  and  Hainan  was  less 
formidable  and  was  put  down  by  the  use  of  bribery 
as  much  as  by  the  sword.  It  is  perhaps  a mistake 
to  speak  of  the  rebellions  in  Formosa  as  ever  being 
really  suppressed,  since  no  attempt  was  made  to 
follow  up  the  crushing  of  an  insurrection  by  such  a 
constructive  policy  as  might  ensure  lasting  tran- 
quillity. 

More  serious  was  the  new  outbreak  among  the 
Miaotsz  of  three  provinces  in  1832.  These  had 
suffered  cruel  exactions  at  the  hands  of  the  lawless 
bands  belonging  to  the  secret  societies,  and  avenged 
themselves  by  the  slaughter  of  the  impotent  and  in- 
different officials.  They  were  then  attacked  in  force. 
Choosing  for  their  leader  the  chief  known  as  the 
Golden  Dragon,  the  tribesmen  prepared  energeti- 
cally to  defend  themselves.  The  Chinese  forces  were 
at  first  under  the  Viceroy  of  Kwangtung,  General 
Li,  but  his  incompetence  and  cruelty  led  to  his  recall 
and  Tao  Kuang  then  sent  his  father-in-law  to  con- 
tinue the  campaign.  Contrary  to  the  general  ex- 
pectation, and  possibly  also  to  his  deserts,  Heng 
nan  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  the  revolt  in  ten 
days.  It  is  said  that  considerable  success  attended 
a kind  of  “ poster  campaign  ” through  which  the 


260  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


people  were  graciously  advised  to  return  peaceably 
to  their  homes. 

Events  in  Canton.  The  real  storm  center  of 
the  Empire,  however,  was  undoubtedly  at  Canton. 
In  the  space  at  our  disposal  it  is  impossible  to  do 
much  more  than  to  state  the  more  salient  facts  as 
fairly  and  dispassionately  as  possible.4  Judgment 
will  probably  follow  racial  or  national  feeling  and 
it  is  as  proper  to  assume  the  patriotism  of  Tao 
Kuang  and  Commissioner  Lin  on  the  one  hand  as 
that  of  Lord  Napier  and  Captain  Elliott  on  the 
other.  Circumstances  being  what  they  were  and  the 
limitations  of  human  beings  what  they  were,  the 
result  was  almost  bound  to  be  what  it  was.  It  is 
our  place  to  see  to  it  that  the  difficulties  dissipated 
with  the  battle-smoke  of  1840  and  subsequent  years 
should  no  longer  obstruct  the  mutual  good  relations 
between  nations.  The  excuses  that  Chinese  and 
English  had  for  misunderstanding  one  another  then 
are  in  no  sense  valid  for  us  to-day.  The  fact  that 
the  difficulties  at  Canton  were  increasing  with  time 
and  that  the  day  was  drawing  near  for  the  charter 
of  the  East  India  Company  to  expire  prompted  the 
British  Government  to  prepare  the  way  for  a new 
order  of  things  which,  it  was  hoped,  would  be  more 
satisfactory  than  the  old.  The  old  method  was  for 
the  foreign  merchants  to  be  represented  by  a body 
called  the  Tai  pan , the  Chinese  by  the  Co  hong , and 
for  the  Chinese  trade  authorities  to  be  the  Viceroy 
of  Kwangtung  and  an  official  from  Peking  known  as 
the  Hoppo.  The  plan,  so  far  as  it  worked  at  all, 
worked  on  a basis  of  mutual  arrangement  and  com- 
promise. The  new  plan  adopted  by  England  was 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


261 


for  a Commissioner  to  be  appointed  who  should  rep- 
resent not  the  merchants  merely,  but  the  Govern- 
ment, and  who  should  have  diplomatic  relations  with 
the  Chinese  Government.  In  the  commission  for- 
warded to  Lord  Napier  (the  first  appointee)  by 
King  George  the  Fourth,  dated  December  10,  1833, 
the  objects  were  clearly  enough  stated.  The  Com- 
missioner was  expected  to  foster  and  protect  trade 
at  Canton,  to  extend  trade  wherever  possible  in 
other  directions,  and  to  open  up  direct  communica- 
tion with  Peking.  The  mistake  was,  however,  made 
of  sending  no  real  notice  of  the  appointment  to 
China,  of  failing  to  make  clear  the  relation  of  Lord 
Napier  to  the  Government  rather  than  to  the  mer- 
chants, and  of  overlooking  the  inability  of  the  Com- 
missioner to  control  other  nations  than  his  own, 
let  alone  the  smugglers  of  all  nations.  So  when, 
with  the  expiration  of  the  charter  of  the  East  India 
Company,  Lord  Napier  commenced  his  task,  there 
wras  not  the  smallest  likelihood  that  he  would  be  able 
to  carry  it  to  a successful  conclusion.  To  begin 
with,  it  was  impossible  to  open  up  communications 
with  the  Viceroy  except  through  the  liong.  There 
is  an  element  even  of  burlesque,  if  one  were  not 
sensible  of  the  terrible  strain  imposed  by  the  pro- 
ceedings upon  the  Commissioner,  in  the  bandying  to 
and  forth  of  missives  such  as  those  from  which  wre 
quote.  Here  is  a characteristic  bit  of  epistolary 
conceit  from  the  Governor:  “ To  sum  up  the  whole 

matter,  the  nation  has  its  laws.  Even  England  has 
its  lawTs.  How  much  more  the  Celestial  Empire ! 
How  flaming  bright  are  its  great  laws  and  ordi- 
nances ! More  terrible  than  the  awful  thunderbolts ! 


262  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Lender  this  whole  bright  heaven  none  dares  to  dis- 
obey them.  Under  its  shelter  are  the  four  seas. 
Subject  to  its  soothing  care  are  ten  thousand  king- 
doms. The  said  barbarian  eye  (Lord  Napier)  hav- 
ing come  over  a sea  of  several  myriads  of  miles  in 
extent  to  examine  and  have  superintendence  of 
affairs,  must  be  a man  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  principles  of  high  dignity.”  5 

And  not  altogether  unlike  is  the  letter  from  the 
Commissioner  which  concludes  as  follows : “ I must 

now  request  you  to  declare  to  them  (the  Hong  mer- 
chants) that  His  Majesty,  the  King  of  England,  is 
a great  and  powerful  monarch,  that  he  rules  over 
an  extent  of  territory  in  the  four  quarters  of  the 
world  more  comprehensive  in  space  and  infinitely 
more  so  in  power  than  the  whole  Empire  of  China, 
that  he  commands  armies  of  bold  and  fierce  soldiers 
who  have  conquered  wherever  they  went ; and  that  he 
is  possessed  of  great  ships  where  no  native  of  China 
has  ever  yet  dared  to  show  his  face.  Let  the  Gov- 
ernor then  judge  if  such  a monarch  will  be  4 rever- 
ently obedient  ’ to  any  one.”  6 

It  is  not  to  be  greatly  wondered  at  that,  while 
much  of  the  trade  went  on  as  usual,  the  poor  Com- 
missioner, buffeted  by  many  unexpected  rebuffs, 
caught  a fever  from  which  he  died  at  Macao  on 
Oct.  11,  1831. 

The  impasse  was  unbroken  when  Captain  Elliott 
(afterwards  Sir  Charles  Elliott)  arrived  in  1836. 
Again  the  attempt  was  made  to  correspond  directly 
with  the  Viceroy.  Again  His  Excellency  refused  to 
accept  any  document  unless  it  were  headed  with  the 
word  p’in  or  “ petition .”  Elliott’s  dignity  balked 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


263 


at  this,  although  he  yielded  sufficiently  to  address 
letters  through  the  Hoppo.  So  the  situation  con- 
tinued. Then  a new  element  was  introduced  from 
Peking.  The  grandees  at  the  Imperial  Court  were 
by  no  means  at  one  as  to  the  policy  to  be  pursued. 
There  were  two  parties  in  the  palace,  one,  headed 
by  the  Empress,  favorable  to  the  legalization  of  the 
trade  in  opium;  another,  headed  by  the  Emperor, 
demanding  total  prohibition  of  the  drug.  The  lat- 
ter party  naturally  won  in  the  contest  of  policy  and 
the  triumph  produced  speedy  and  spectacular  re- 
sults at  Canton.  Captain  Elliott  was  no  friend  of 
the  opium  business,  but  he  nevertheless  believed  sin- 
cerely that  the  best  way  of  controlling  the  traffic 
was  by  legalization.  His  position  was  influenced, 
moreover,  by  some  justifiable  doubts  as  to  the  bona 
fides  of  the  Chinese  endeavor  to  abolish  the  traffic. 
Many  officials  were  openly  in  connivance  with  the 
smugglers  and  the  son  of  the  obstinate  Viceroy  him- 
self was  profitably  engaged  in  the  business.  The 
cultivation  of  the  poppy  was  likewise  increasing  rap- 
idly throughout  the  provinces,  and  the  trade  in  the 
opium  was  to  all  appearances  nowhere  being  inter- 
fered with  except  in  Canton. 

Matters  were  brought  to  a head  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  Lin  Tse-lisii  as  Imperial  Commissioner. 
Few  will  question  the  genuine  patriotism  of  this  great 
Chinaman,  though  many  will  feel  that  he  was  doc- 
trinaire and  impetuous  beyond  the  limits  of  good 
judgment.  Born  in  A.  D.  17851  in  the  province  of 
Fuhkien,  he  had  risen  to  the  position  of  Censor  and 
thence  to  that  of  Governor  of  Hukuang.  He  was 
gazetted  Imperial  Commissioner  in  1838  and  Vice- 


264  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


roy  in  1839,  arriving  at  his  post  on  March  10  of 
the  latter  year.  Things  at  once  began  to  move, 
though  unfortunately,  in  the  direction  of  war.  Lin 
demanded  the  surrender  of  all  the  opium  in  the  hands 
of  the  merchants.  These,  not  as  yet  knowing  the 
man  with  whom  they  had  to  deal,  subscribed  some- 
thing over  a thousand  chests  as  “ a sop  to  Cerberus.” 
Lin  knew  enough  not  to  be  satisfied  with  this,  and 
at  once  ordered  a siege  of  the  foreign  settlement  until 
the  last  ounce  should  have  been  delivered  up.  This 
was  a serious  situation,  and  Captain  Elliott  saw  no 
way  out  of  it  except  to  ask  in  the  name  of  the  British 
Government  that  the  merchants  should  obey  the  per- 
emptory demand.  In  a very  short  time  20,283 7 
chests  were  forthcoming,  but  Commissioner  Lin 
would  not  raise  the  siege  till  the  last  particle  was 
actually  in  his  hands.  All  this  entailed  some  forty- 
eight  days’  confinement  of  the  foreign  community, 
but  Lin  had  gained  his  point.  The  whole  of  the 
drug  was  most  effectually  destroyed,  and  the  Chinese 
counterpart  of  the  “ Boston  Tea  Party  ” might  have 
done  much  to  clear  up  the  situation  had  not  Lin 
confused  the  issues  by  other  demands,  such  as  that 
certain  Europeans  should  be  surrendered  for  punish- 
ment on  account  of  alleged  crimes  on  Chinese  soil. 
These  demands  naturally  were  refused  point  blank, 
whilst  the  opium  business,  stimulated  by  the  clear- 
ing out  of  the  entire  market,  soon  began  to  flourish 
anew,  with  raised  prices  and  a brisk  demand.  Then 
occurred  the  arrival  of  two  British  warships  and, 
in  the  tension  of  feeling  then  prevailing,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  occasion  was  soon  found  for  the 
naval  engagement  at  Chuanpu  on  Nov.  3,  1839,  by 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


265 


which  several  Chinese  junks  were  destroyed.  The 
whole  lamentable  dispute  was  thus  for  the  time  being 
transferred  from  the  field  of  diplomacy  to  the  bloody 
arbitrament  of  war. 

War  with  Great  Britain.  “ It  was  the  closing 
of  trade,”  says  the  Chinese  historian  Wei  Yuan, 
“ not  the  forced  surrender  of  the  opium,  which 
brought  on  the  Canton  war.”  It  is  unfortunate 
indeed  that  the  opening  of  China  to  the  commerce  of 
the  western  world  was  attended  by  war,  and  espe- 
cially a war  which  was  undertaken  in  connection  with 
a traffic  so  iniquitous  as  that  which  dealt  in  opium. 
But  it  is  difficult  to  apportion  the  blame  justly  be- 
tween the  two  combatants  and,  once  again,  we  must 
be  content  to  recite  the  facts  and  take  to  heart  the 
lessons.  The  first  war  with  Great  Britain  was  a 
somewhat  desultory  campaign.  It  was,  moreover, 
carried  on  with  a surprisingly  small  force  on  the 
English  side,  not  more  than  nine  thousand  men  being 
engaged  at  any  one  time,  and  the  great  city  of  Can- 
ton being  stormed  by  a force  of  only  five  thousand 
effectives. 

Only  two  ships  were  engaged  in  the  affair  at 
Chuanpu,  but  by  the  end  of  June,  1840,  there  were 
seventeen  men-of-war  and  twenty-seven  troopships 
with  four  thousand  soldiers  at  Hongkong.  Canton 
was  blockaded  and  Tinghai,  on  the  island  of  Chusan, 
captured  by  Sir  Gordon  Bremer.  Then  the  fleet 
sailed  northwards  from  Ningpo  to  Taku  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Pei-ho.  Here  Captain  Elliott  was  met 
by  the  Governor  of  Chihli,  Ki  Shen,  a diplomat  whose 
career  up  to  this  time  had  been  one  long  series  of 
successes,  but  who  from  this  time  onward  had  much 


266  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


reason  to  regret  his  entanglement  with  the  Empire’s 
foreign  affairs.  Ki  Shen  managed  to  persuade  the 
fleet  to  return  to  Canton,  where,  meanwhile,  things 
had  gone  from  bad  to  worse.  Poor  Lin  had  now 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Emperor,  who  sent 
him  word  that  he  was  “ no  better  than  a block  of 
wood  ” and  ordered  him,  nevertheless,  to  return  to 
Peking,  “ with  the  speed  of  flames.”  Sir  Gordon 
Bremer,  returning  to  Canton,  found  nothing  better 
to  do  than  capture  a few  of  the  forts.  This  led  Ki 
Shen,  now  occupying  Lin’s  former  position,  to  sug- 
gest negotiations,  and  a convention  was  drawn  up, 
known  subsequently  as  the  Treaty  of  the  Bogue , by 
which  Hongkong  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  and  an 
indemnity  of  six  million  dollars  promised,  to  pay 
for  the  opium  which  had  been  destroyed.  All  this, 
however,  was  arranged  independently  of  Peking,  and 
the  Emperor,  so  far  from  ratifying  the  instrument, 
sent  more  troops  and  peremptory  orders  to  destroy 
the  foreigners  utterly,  “ and  wash  them  clean  away.” 
As  Ki  Shen  failed  to  do  this,  he  in  turn  was  recalled. 
Then  the  war  was  resumed.  The  Bogue  forts  were 
captured,  and  the  Imperial  troops  continued  to 
assemble  until  there  were  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Canton  some  fifty  thousand  Chinese  soldiers,  more 
or  less  equipped  for  war.  Then  a night  attack  wras 
made  on  the  British  fleet  and  failed,  and  matters 
once  again  came  to  a halt.  This  unsatisfactory 
condition  of  affairs  was  relieved  by  the  sending  of 
Sir  Henry  Pottinger  to  take  the  place  of  Captain 
Elliott  and  the  appointment  of  Sir  Hugh  Gough  and 
Sir  William  Parker  in  charge  respectively  of  the 
militarv  and  naval  forces  of  Great  Britain. 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


267 


A vigorous  campaign  was  at  once  initiated. 
Without  any  waste  of  time  the  expedition  started 
northward,  took  the  city  of  Amoy,  retook  Tinghai 
on  the  island  of  Chusan,  and  then  in  succession 
captured  the  cities  of  Chinhai,  Ningpo,  Wusung, 
Shanghai  and  Chinkiang.  In  some  cities  the  Man- 
chu  garrisons  made  a very  creditable  defense ; in 
others  deplorable  incidents  took  place,  such  as  the 
suicide  of  some  thousands  of  panic-stricken  people 
at  Chinkiang.  Meanwhile  the  Commissioners  Ilipu 
and  Ki-ying  were  despatched  from  Peking,  and  when 
Nanking,  the  old  capital,  was  threatened,  they  ap- 
peared on  the  scene  and  associating  with  themselves 
another  diplomat,  one  Niu-kien,  opened  up  com- 
munications with  Sir  Henry  Pottinger.  The  ne- 
gotiations this  time  went  through  satisfactorily,  and 
on  Aug.  29,  1842  there  was  signed  on  board  H.  M.  S. 
Cornwallis  the  Treaty  of  Nanking,  which  Dr.  Wells 
Williams  has  described  as  “ one  of  the  turning  points 
in  the  history  of  mankind,  involving  the  welfare  of 
all  nations  in  its  wide-reaching  consequences.”  It 
consisted  of  thirteen  articles,  of  which  the  principal 
provisions  arranged  for  the  transfer  of  Hongkong 
to  the  British  crown;  the  payment  of  $21,000,000 
indemnity  (made  up  of  $6,000,000  for  the  opium, 
$3,000,000  for  debts  due  to  British  subjects,  and 
$12,000,000  for  the  expenses  of  the  campaign)  ; the 
opening,  in  addition  to  Canton,  of  the  four  ports  of 
Amoy,  Fuchow,  Ningpo  and  Shanghai;  and  the 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  extra-territoriality. 
So  anxious  were  the  authorities  to  see  the  last  of  the 
foreign  ships  that  the  treaty  was  hurried  to  Peking 
and  returned  signed  with  unusual  celerity.  By 


268  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


October  the  fleet  had  retired  to  Chusan,  which  it  was 
decided  to  hold  until  the  indemnity  had  been  paid. 

Results  of  the  Treaty  of  Nanking.  The  re- 
sults of  the  treaty  of  1842  were  far-reaching.  Not 
only  were  the  trade  interests  of  Great  Britain  ad- 
yanced  through  the  possession  of  Hongkong  (an 
island  destined  soon  to  become  the  greatest  empo- 
rium in  the  East  and  the  world’s  third  largest  port), 
but  the  other  nations  of  Europe  and  America  soon 
recognized  the  door  opened  for  their  own  commerce. 
At  last  the  walls  of  brass  were  broken  down. 
Agents  from  Belgium,  Holland,  Spain,  Prussia  and 
Portugal  appeared  to  measure  the  extent  of  their 
opportunities.  Ministers  extraordinary  were  ap- 
pointed by  France  and  the  United  States.  Presi- 
dent Tyler  sent  Mr.  Caleb  Cushing  with  a letter 
which  has  been  much  criticised  for  its  “ patronizing 
superiority,”  but  which  was  really  only  an  attempt 
to  translate  the  President’s  thoughts  into  what  he 
believed  to  be  the  appropriate  verbiage  of  the  Orient. 
It  begins  with  an  interesting  little  lesson  in  geog- 
raphy: “ I hope  your  health  is  good.  China  is 

a great  empire,  extending  over  a great  part  of  the 
world.  The  Chinese  are  numerous.  You  have  mil- 
lions and  millions  of  subjects.  The  twenty-six 
United  States  are  as  large  as  China,  though  our 
people  are  not  so  numerous.  The  rising  sun  looks 
upon  the  great  mountains  and  great  rivers  of  China. 
When  he  sets  he  looks  upon  rivers  and  mountains 
equally  large  in  the  United  States.  Our  territories 
extend  from  one  great  ocean  to  the  other;  and  on 
the  west  we  are  divided  from  your  dominions  only  by 
the  sea.  Leaving  the  mouth  of  one  of  our  great 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


269 


rivers,  and  going  constantly  towards  the  setting 
sun,  we  sail  to  Japan  and  to  the  Yellow  Sea.”  Mr. 
Cushing,  nevertheless,  arranged  a treaty  which  was 
signed  July  3,  1844,  and  cleared  up  matters  so  far 
as  America  was  concerned.  In  one  respect  it  went 
further,  namely,  in  securing  the  right  to  the  free 
exercise  of  the  Christian  religion  in  the  open  ports. 
“ This  right,”  says  Lord  William  Cecil,8  “ suffi- 
ciently remarkable  in  itself,  has  often  been  stipulated 
by  a State  for  its  own  nationals  resident  in  a foreign 
country,  but  I doubt  if  it  has  ever  before  been  known 
for  a country  to  insist  on  the  right  of  preaching  a 
religion  to  somebody  else’s  citizens.”  A French 
treaty  was  signed  October  24  of  the  same  year. 
Thus  all  the  advantages  which  England  had  won  by 
war  were  appropriated  peacefully  by  the  other 
powers.  The  one  question  which  had,  at  least  indi- 
rectly, been  instrumental  in  bringing  on  the  war  was 
the  one  which  remained  totally  unaffected  by  the 
various  agreements.  Opium  was  not  placed  among 
the  dutiable  articles.  Efforts  were  indeed  made  to 
have  the  traffic  legalized,  and  so  controlled,  but  with- 
out result. 

The  Situation  at  Canton.  The  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  at  Nanking  had  little  or  no  effect  in 
pacifying  Canton.  It  is  not  creditable  to  the  repu- 
tation of  foreigners  that  in  the  city  where  they  had 
lived  the  longest  and  were  presumably  best  known, 
they  were  least  liked.  The  law  of  extra-territorial- 
ity was  particularly  resented,  and  difficult  to  enforce. 
In  1847  a brutal  assault  on  Englishmen  visiting 
Fatshan  was  made  and  the  now  customary  proceed- 
ing of  capturing  the  Bogue  forts  was  carried 


270  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


through  without  influencing  the  Governor  or  the 
populace.  Ki-ving  was  perfectly  justified  in  con- 
sidering Canton  an  unsafe  place  for  Englishmen  and 
need  not  be  regarded  as  trying  to  overreach  Sir  John 
Davis,  the  new  Governor  of  Hongkong,  when  he 
stipulated  for  an  extension  of  time  for  two  years  in 
the  matter  of  opening  the  city  to  foreigners.  It 
was  probably  a necessary  step  in  order  to  avoid 
further  outrages  on  the  part  of  the  excited  populace. 
The  criticism  has  sometimes  been  made  that  Mr. 
(afterwards  Sir)  Rutherford  Alcock  handled  a sim- 
ilar situation  expeditiously  enough  at  Shanghai,  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  trouble  at  Canton 
was  of  longer  standing  and  went  much  deeper.  The 
Governor  of  Canton  was  now  the  famous  (or  at  least 
notorious)  Yeh  Ming -she  n (of  whom  more  anon) 
and  under  his  administration  things  became  daily 
more  serious.  Six  Englishmen  were  murdered  five 
months  after  the  last  outrage,  while  three  miles  from 
Canton,  and  although  the  offenders  were  promptly 
sought  and  punished  by  Commissioner  Ki-ving,  there 
was  no  consequent  improvement  in  the  temper  of  the 
people.  Things  were  in  this  condition  when  events 
took  place,  which  dwarfed  for  the  time  being  the 
anti-foreign  agitation  at  Canton.  These  events  are 
of  such  a magnitude  that  they  must  be  treated  in  a 
separate  chapter. 

Death  of  Tao  Kuaxg.  The  poor  Emperor  had 
already  had  his  sea  of  troubles  and  was  now  seriously 
ill.  His  fears  were  increased  by  the  prediction  of 
an  eclipse  of  the  sun  for  New  Year’s  Day,  1850. 
This  was  so  inauspicious  an  omen  that  the  Emperor 
tried  to  avert  the  occurrence  by  postponing  the  New 


THE  REIGN  OF  TAO  KUANG 


271 


Year  celebration  for  twenty-four  hours.  He  might, 
however,  as  well  have  tried  to  postpone  the  eclipse. 
The  sick  monarch  grew  worse  and  worse,  and  a few 
weeks  later  died,  leaving  the  Dragon  Throne  to  his 
fourth  son,  Hsien  Feng. 


NOTES 


1.  S.  Wells  Williams,  “The  Middle  Kingdom,”  I, 
p.  400. 

2.  S.  Wells  Williams,  “ The  Middle  Kingdom,”  I, 
p.  468. 

3.  S.  Wells  Williams,  “ The  Middle  Kingdom,”  I, 
p.  409. 

4.  Capt.  Brinkley  leans  sympathetically  towards  the 
Chinese  side  of  the  case  while  Sir  Robert  Douglas’  view 
is  frankly  British. 

5.  Foster,  p.  59. 

6.  Foster,  p.  61. 

7.  So  both  Douglas  and  Brinkley;  Ency.  Br.  and 
Pott  say  20,291  chests  and  Dr.  Arthur  Brown,  22,299. 
The  discrepancy  is  of  no  special  importance. 

8.  “ Changing  China,”  p.  46. 


272 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


THE  T‘AIPING  REBELLION 
A.  D.  1850-1861. 

Causes  of  the  revolt  — Hung  Hsiu-cKixan  — the 
Rebellion  — religious  aspect  — the  march  on  Pe- 
king— the  “ Ever-Victorious  Army  ” — end  of  the 
T'aipings. 

Causes.  A pamphlet  in  the  writer’s  possession 
contains  an  Episcopal  charge  delivered  by  the  Rt. 
Rev.  George  Smith,  first  Bishop  of  Victoria  1 (Hong- 
kong), in  Trinity  Church,  Shanghai,  on  October 
20,  1853.2  It  says  on  the  first  page:  “The  very 

walls  within  which  we  are  met  have  been  echoing  the 
fierce  sounds  of  battle.  . . . On  this  very  morning, 
yea  at  this  very  hour,  within  less  than  a mile  of  the 
edifice  within  which  we  are  assembled,  the  booming 
of  cannon  and  the  noise  of  musketry  proclaim  the 
raging  of  battle  and  slaughter.  The  dead  and  the 
dying  have  been  borne  past  our  dwelling,  the  winged 
instruments  of  death  have  been  whirled  past  our  ears 
and  over  our  heads  on  their  message  of  destruc- 
tion.” 3 The  good  Bishop  was  well  justified  in  add- 
ing: “ China,  long  immovable,  obeys  in  her  turn 

the  general  law  of  change;  dynasties  and  thrones  are 
crumbling  to  dust.”  The  Manchu  dynasty  certain- 
tainly  in  the  T‘aiping  rebellion  had  a very  narrow 

escape,  but  the  end  was  not  yet. 

273 


274  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Nevertheless,  the  T‘aiping  movement  was  not  in 
its  origin  an  anti-dynastic  agitation.  It  had  little 
in  common  with  the  secret  societies  which  at  the 
time  were  so  persistent  with  their  slogan,  “ Ex- 
terminate the  Ch‘ing;  restore  the  Ming.”  With 
these  societies  the  T‘aipings  never  really  co-oper- 
ated. Of  course  there  were  anti-dynastic  sentiments 
in  the  air  which  gave  impetus  to  the  rebellion. 
Many  other  elements  are  likewise  discernible.  The 
rottenness  of  the  whole  Imperial  system,  with  its 
feet  of  miry  clay,  had  been  thoroughly  exposed  in 
the  recent  war  with  England.  Rage  at  the  acquisi- 
tion by  a foreign  power  of  Hongkong  added  to  the 
flames  of  discontent  with  the  authorities  at  Peking. 
Moreover,  the  floods  and  famines  from  1834  on- 
wards, the  great  earthquake  in  Hunan  in  1834,  the 
terrible  famines  in  Szechwan  from  1839  to  1841, 
all  had  their  effect.  Yet,  notwithstanding  all  this, 
the  proximate  causes  of  the  revolt  were  personal  and 
religious. 

Hung  Hsiu-ch‘uan.  Who  was  the  leader  in  the 
movement  which  wellnigh  gave  to  China  a new  religion 
and  a new  dynasty,  and  which  actually,  in  the  words 
of  a Chinese  annalist,  “ lasted  fifteen  years,  devas- 
tated sixteen  provinces,  destroyed  six  hundred  cit- 
ies ” and  (we  may  add)  cost  the  lives  of  at  least 
twenty  million  people?  It  was  Hung  Hsiu-ch'iian , 
a native  of  Kwangtung,  a Hakka  by  race,  and  a 
literatus  by  ambition.  He  made  at  least  three  at- 
tempts to  pass  his  examinations,  studied  desultorily 
various  philosophies  and  religions,  including  Chris- 
tianity, but  was  nominally  a Buddhist  until  the  ill- 
ness which  marks  the  turning  point  of  his  career. 


THE  T‘AIPING  REBELLION 


275 


In  this  illness  he  had  a trance  in  which  God  came  to 
him  in  the  likeness  of  an  old  man,  took  out  his  heart 
and  returned  it  to  him  purified,  then  gave  him  a 
sword  and  commissioned  him  to  make  war  against 
the  idolaters.  On  his  recovery  he  bethought  him- 
self of  the  “ Good  Words  to  Exhort  the  Age  ” which 
he  had  received  from  a Christian  preacher,  Liang 
Afa,  and  recognized  the  God  of  his  vision  as  the  God 
of  the  Christians.  Some  instruction  he  gained  from 
a visit  to  a Baptist  minister,  Issachar  Roberts  of 
Canton,  in  1846,  but  Hung’s  Christianity  was  to 
the  end  of  a very  crude  and  imperfect  sort,  intel- 
lectually and  morally.  Nevertheless,  he  discarded 
idolatry,  began  to  preach  the  new  faith  and  gath- 
ered around  him  converts  of  sincerity  and  zeal. 
Together  they  formed  the  Shang  Ti  Hui , or  “ So- 
ciety of  God.”  The  leader  called  himself  “ the 
Younger  Brother  of  Jesus  Christ,”  using  the  term 
“ Younger  Brother  ” (ti)  in  its  Chinese  sense  of 
subordination  and  obedience. 

The  Rebellion.  Up  to  1850,  as  we  have  seen, 
there  was  little  that  was  political  in  Hung’s  pro- 
gram. The  conflict  with  the  Government  came 
through  the  use  of  the  word  “ hui  ” (“  association  ”) 
which  put  the  movement  into  the  category  of  the 
proscribed  societies.  Then  came  the  return  to  the 
old  Chinese  method  of  wearing  the  hair  long,  instead 
of  in  a queue,  a custom  which  branded  them  as  rebels 
to  the  Manchu  authority  and  caused  the  populace 
to  ridicule  them  as  Cliang-mao , or  “ Long-haired 
rebels .”  But  as  in  similar  cases,  the  movement  be- 
gan with  persecution  to  thrive  and  spread  so  rapidly 
in  the  province  of  Kwangsi  that  two  Imperial  Com- 


27 6 OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


missioners,  Saishangah  and  Tahungah,  were  sent 
down  from  Peking  to  deal  with  the  agitation.  Then 
Hung  took  the  bold  step  of  proclaiming  himself  as 
Tien  Wang  or  the  “ Heavenly  King  ” and  of  taking 
for  the  title  of  the  new  dynasty  he  expected  to  found 
the  name  of  T'aiping  or  “ Perfect  Peace.”  Never 
was  a name  more  misleading  adopted  by  a revolu- 
tionary movement!  From  the  first  Hung  made  for 
himself  a trail  of  blood  and  rapine.  City  after  city 
was  captured  and  the  Manchus  began  to  fear  the 
hour  of  their  doom  had  struck.  The  truculent  Yeh 
in  Canton  turned  aside  from  his  squabbles  with  the 
English  to  lament  as  follows : “ The  whole  country 

swarms  with  the  rebels.  Our  funds  are  nearly  at  an 
end  and  our  troops  are  few;  our  officers  disagree 
and  the  power  is  not  concentrated.  The  commander 
of  the  forces  wants  to  extinguish  a burning  wagon- 
load of  faggots  with  a cupful  of  water.  ...  I fear 
that  we  shall  hereafter  have  some  serious  affair,  that 
the  great  body  of  the  people  will  rise  against  us  and 
that  our  own  followers  will  leave  us.”  Yeh  is  said 
in  the  course  of  his  administration  to  have  put  to 
death  seventy  thousand  T‘aipings,  yet  he  apparently 
had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  suppression  of 
the  insurrection.  The  great  soldier  Tseng  Kuo-fan 
did  a good  deal  to  check  their  advance  northward, 
but,  one  after  another,  Yochow,  Wuchang  and  Kiu- 
kiang  were  taken,  and  at  last  in  1853  the  ancient 
capital,  Nanking,  was  stormed  and  sacked,  over 
twenty  thousand  Manchus  being  ruthlessly  put  to 
the  sword.  Here  the  Tien  Wang  now  established 
his  court,  proclaimed  his  dynasty  and  appointed  the 
Wangs  of  the  East,  North,  South  and  West,  who 


THE  T‘AIPING  REBELLION  277 

subsequently  played  an  important  part  in  the  mili- 
tary operations.  As  for  Hung  he  seems  gradually 
to  have  settled  down  into  a life  of  luxury  and  self- 
indulgence  and  to  have  lost  the  earlier  enthusiasm 
and  sincerity  of  his  faith. 

Religious  Aspect  of  the  T‘aiping  Revolt.  In 
the  earliest  stages  of  the  rebellion  there  was  much 
perplexity  as  to  the  proper  attitude  to  be  adopted 
by  foreigners.  The  Christian  complexion  of  the 
Society  naturally  disposed  many  to  sympathy  and 
even  to  admiration.  In  the  charge  from  which  I 
have  already  quoted  we  read : “ The  rebel  leaders 

are  evidently  men  in  earnest.  Their  unsparing  de- 
struction of  idols  . . . would  be  impolitic  in  men 
with  less  lofty  aims  than  those  of  a reformation  of 
the  national  religion.  . . . Their  compulsory  pro- 
hibition of  opium  smoking,  and  their  threatened  ex- 
clusion of  this  contraband  article  from  the  country 
preclude  the  supposition  of  their  being  actuated  by 
a selfish  and  calculating  policy.”  Bishop  Smith 
goes  on  to  describe  their  camp  services,  Cromwellian- 
like  preachings,  to  quote  from  their  prayers,  odes 
and  creeds.  He  pictures  also  for  us  the  waters  of 
the  Yangtse  Kiang  carrying  down  to  the  sea  the 
ruins  of  thousands  of  temples  and  fragments  of 
broken  idols.  All  this  was  hopeful  enough.  Again, 
from  another  point  of  view,  the  rebellion  seemed  to 
invite  sympathy,  since  there  was,  at  least  at  the  be- 
ginning, a desire  to  be  on  good  terms  with  the  for- 
eigners. “ Foreign  nations,”  we  read,  “ though  far 
removed,  are  protected  and  cared  for  by  the  one 
great  God ; and  China,  which  is  so  near,  is  under  the 
same  gracious  care.  There  are  many  men  in  the 


278  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


world  but  they  are  all  our  brethren:  there  are  many 
women  in  the  world  but  they  are  all  our  sisters.” 
This  also  was  distinctly  promising,  especially  in 
view  of  affairs  in  Canton,  and  possibly  if  strong  out- 
side influences  could  have  secured  a footing  in  the 
counsels  of  the  T‘aiping  leaders,  the  insurrection 
might  have  been  wisely  guided  to  great  ends.  But 
the  fact  remains  that  the  better  acquainted  foreign 
sympathizers  became  with  the  T‘aipings  the  more 
rapidly  the  sympathy  melted  away.  It  was  seen 
that  no  inroads  had  been  made  on  the  polygamy  of 
the  nation  and  that,  if  the  Bible  was  being  still 
studied,  it  was  almost  exclusively  in  its  most  san- 
guinary and  least  elevated  passages.  So  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Tien  Wang  with  his  court  at  Nan- 
king marks  in  a double  sense  the  end  of  the  first  and 
more  hopeful  chapter  of  the  story. 

The  March  on  Peking.  The  capture  of  Nan- 
king seemed  for  a time  to  have  exhausted  the  re- 
sources of  the  Tien  Wang.  Perhaps,  as  he  had  now 
reached  the  point  attained  by  the  Mings  in  their 
overthrow  of  the  Mongol  dynasty,  there  was  felt  a 
lack  of  any  precedent  for  further  movement.  But 
new  operations  were  manifestly  necessary,  and  a 
fine,  if  somewhat  too  audacious,  bid  for  success  was 
made  in  the  truly  great  march  which  was  executed 
by  General  Li.  It  penetrated  a hostile  country 
northwards  for  some  hundreds  of  miles  and  reached 
a point  only  a very  few  miles  from  Peking.  General 
Li  was  an  ex-charcoal  seller,  and  his  march  in  May, 
1853,  is  described  by  Captain  Brinkley  as  “ one  of 
the  most  extraordinary  marches  on  record  . . . like 
marching  across  one  half  of  hostile  Europe.” 


THE  T‘AIPING  REBELLION 


279 


“ This  intrepid  commander,”  the  historian  adds, 
“ deserves  a place  beside  those  of  the  great  captains 
of  the  world.”  General  Li,  however,  effected  noth- 
ing that  was  permanently  useful  to  the  cause.  He 
was  checked  by  General  Sankolinsin,  and  Li  Hung- 
chang,  who  now  appears  on  the  field  of  Chinese  his- 
tory for  the  first  time,  hung  on  the  rebel  skirts  and 
helped  to  make  the  retreat  difficult.  The  failure  of 
the  heroic  attempt  to  beard  the  lion  in  his  lair  by 
carrying  the  rebellion  to  the  capital  of  the  Empire 
was  in  reality  the  deathblow  to  the  T‘aiping  move- 
ment, though  many  years  yet  were  to  elapse  before 
its  final  downfall.  But  for  the  energy  of  others 
than  the  leader  it  must  have  collapsed  much  earlier. 
Yang,  who  had  claimed  to  be  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
had  even  on  one  occasion  exercised  the  privilege  of 
scourging  the  Tien  Wang,  on  the  strength  of  a 
revelation  which  had  been  vouchsafed  him,  fell  into 
disfavor  and  was  executed.  The  rebel  leader  re- 
mained inactive  amid  his  thirty  wives  and  one  hun- 
dred concubines,  leaving  the  entire  management  of 
the  dubious  campaign  to  the  eleven  Wangs. 

“ The  Ever  Victorious  Army.”  The  real  mili- 
tary genius  whom  the  T‘aiping  revolt  produced  was 
the  Chung  Wang , whose  brilliant  movements  against 
the  Imperial  troops  on  more  than  one  occasion 
threatened  the  foreign  settlements  at  Shanghai  and 
elsewhere.  It  was  this  feature  of  the  war  which  at 
length  suggested  the  employment  of  foreigners  to  aid 
in  putting  down  a rebellion  as  wasteful  and  tedious 
as  it  was  blood-thirsty.  The  first  foreigner  to  offer 
his  services  was  Frederick  Ward  of  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, an  adventurer  under  whose  energetic  and 


280  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


tactful  leadership  the  medley  hordes  of  recruits  soon 
became  a force  to  be  known  henceforth,  and  not  un- 
deservedly, under  the  high-sounding  title,  Chang- 
shing  Kiun , or  “ The  Ever  Victorious  Army.” 
From  1860,  when  this  force  began  its  career,  the  tide 
began  to  turn,  and  in  1862,  wdien  Ward  was  killed 
in  action,  things  looked  brighter  for  the  Manchus 
than  they  had  done  for  twelve  years.  Yet  the 
“ Faithful  Prince  ” (Chang  Wang)  was  by  no  means 
at  the  end  of  his  tether,  and  many  severe  battles  had 
yet  to  be  fought.  Ward’s  little  army  was  for  a time 
led  by  another  American,  named  Burgevine,  who, 
however,  proved  a failure  and  was  dismissed  by  Li 
Hung-chang,  now  Governor.  This  made  way  for 
the  appointment  of  the  young  officer  of  engineers 
who  was  destined  to  be  known  as  “ Chinese  ” Gordon , 
until  he  won  the  yet  more  glorious  title  of  “ Gordon 
of  Khartoum.”  The  story  of  Charles  George  Gor- 
don’s wonderful  influence,  his  knightly  other-worldli- 
ness,  of  the  splendid  series  of  victories,  of  the  “ wand 
of  victory  ” with  which  he  led  and  inspired  his  men 
till  they  believed  him  invincible  and  invulnerable,  of 
his  chivalrous  anger  over  Li  Hung-chang’s  breach 
of  faith  in  the  murder  of  the  surrendered  Wangs  — 
all  these  things  make  up  one  of  the  most  fascinating 
chapters  in  the  romance  of  warfare.  By  June,  1861, 
Gordon’s  work  was  done ; the  “ Ever  Victorious 
Army  ” was  disbanded,  and  the  Imperial  forces  were 
left  to  enjoy  the  satisfaction  of  dealing  the  last 
stroke  to  the  rebellion  without  foreign  assistance. 

The  End  of  the  Typings.  There  was  now  only 
the  capture  of  Nanking  between  the  Imperialists  and 
their  goal.  The  Chung  Wang  was  still  a quantity 


THE  T‘AIPING  REBELLION 


281 


to  be  reckoned  with,  but  a breach  was  eventually 
made  in  the  walls  and  the  city  was  captured.  The 
T4aiping  leader  poisoned  himself  with  gold  leaf  and 
his  son  was  captured  after  an  heroic  attempt  had 
been  made  by  the  Chung  Wang  to  carry  him  on 
horseback  beyond  the  reach  of  the  victors.  Both 
were  executed,  although  the  execution  of  the  44  Faith- 
ful Prince  ” was  delayed  a week  in  order  that  the 
brave  soldier  might  complete  the  writing  of  his  mem- 
oirs. This  work  has  been  published  and  is  an  inter- 
esting record  of  the  career  of  a brave  and  generous 
soldier.  The  victorious  Imperialists  sullied  their  tri- 
umph by  digging  up  and  desecrating  the  body  of  the 
Heavenly  King.  The  whole  of  the  fourteen  years’ 
struggle,  thus  brought  to  so  tardy  an  end,  is  a long, 
miserable  story  of  wasted  enthusiasm  and  futile  cour- 
age. 


NOTES 


1.  The  same  year,  1844,  witnessed  the  consecration 
of  the  two  Bishops  of  the  Anglican  Communion  for 
China,  viz.:  Bishop  Smith  of  Victoria  (Hongkong)  from 
England,  and  Bishop  Boone  of  Shanghai  from  the  United 
States. 

2.  “ China,  her  Future  and  her  Past,”  1854. 

3.  A footnote  on  page  1 says,  “ During  the  delivery 
of  the  charge  a ball  struck  the  church.” 


282 


CHAPTER  XXV 


THE  REIGN  OF  HSIEN  FENG 
A.  D.  1850-1860. 

Hsien  Feng  — the  “Arrow” — second  war  with 
Great  Britain  — the  Treaty  of  Tientsin  — destruc- 
tion of  the  Summer  Palace  — the  Russian  advance 
— the  Emperor's  death. 

Hsien  Feng.  Though  the  reign  of  Hsien  Feng 
was,  throughout  its  ten  years’  duration,  overshad- 
owed by  the  murderous  rivalry  of  the  T‘aipings,  yet 
there  was  much  else  to  make  it  memorable,  even  if  it 
can  lay  no  claim  to  distinction.  The  Emperor  him- 
self, who  was  nineteen  when  he  came  to  the  throne, 
had  no  share  of  his  father’s  ability  and  vigor.  His 
reign,  so  far  as  he  personally  is  concerned,  is  a dec- 
ade of  imbecile  and  futile  effort  to  fill  depleted  cof- 
fers. He  desired  to  issue  paper  and  iron  money 
and  seriously  proposed  to  have  “ counters  cut  out  of 
jade  stone  to  take  the  place  of  bullion.”  He  had 
the  narrowest  conceivable  views  of  the  functions  of 
government,  and  the  officials  surrounding  him  at 
Court  were  as  anti-foreign  as  ever.  Ivi-ying,  the  one 
man  at  Canton  who  had  labored  for  justice,  and  had 
in  an  earlier  reign  even  petitioned  for  some  measure 
of  toleration  for  Christianity,  was  recalled  and  or- 
dered to  commit  suicide  in  1856. 

The  “ Arrow.”  What  the  compulsory  surrender 

283 


284  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


of  the  opium  was  in  1839,  that  the  seizure  of  the 
lorcha  Arrow  was  in  1856,  the  proximate  and 
yet  not  the  real  cause  of  war  with  Great  Britain. 
A lorcha  is  a vessel  partly  of  Chinese  and  partly  of 
foreign  rig,  and  there  were  many  of  these  vessels  on 
the  Chinese  coast,  engaged  in  doubtful  varieties  of 
business.  Many  of  them  were  placed  under  the  Brit- 
ish flag  at  Hongkong,  but  unfortunately  this  was  no 
reason  for  their  not  transforming  themselves  into 
freebooters  as  soon  as  they  were  outside  Chinese  wa- 
ters. Consequently,  the  authorities  at  Canton  had 
some  reason  for  being  suspicious  when  the  Arrow 
sailed  into  the  Pearl  River  on  Oct.  8,  1856.  It  was 
boarded  by  Chinese  in  search  of  opium,  the  English 
flag  hauled  down,  and  fourteen  sailors  were  carried 
off  on  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in  piracy.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  the  foreign  registry  had  expired  four- 
teen days  before,1  but  this  was  unknown  to  the  Chi- 
nese. An  immediate  demand  for  redress  was  made 
by  the  British  Consul,  Harry  Parkes,  but  the  re- 
doubtable Yeh  decided  to  stand  firm.  Sir  John 
Bowring, 2>,  the  Governor  of  Hongkong,  labored  hard 
for  peace,  asking  that  Yeh  should  send  the  three 
nationals  to  the  consulate  and  then  make  the  request 
for  their  return  on  the  charge  of  piracy.  Yeh  was, 
however,  still  obdurate,  and,  other  things  coming  up 
to  complicate  the  situation,  Admiral  Sir  Michael  Sey- 
mour on  Oct.  23  took  possession  of  the  defenses  of 
Canton.  On  the  25th  he  captured  the  Island  and 
the  Fort  of  Dutch  Folly,  and  it  was  felt  that  now 
was  the  fitting  time  to  insist  on  the  promise  to  fulfill 
the  treaty  obligation,  so  long  evaded,  to  open  up 
Canton  to  foreign  residence.  In  January,  1857,  an 


THE  REIGN  OF  HSIEN  FENG  285 

attempt  was  made  in  Hongkong  to  poison  all  for- 
eigners by  putting  arsenic  in  the  morning’s  supply  of 
bread.  Fortunately,  too  much  arsenic  was  em- 
ployed, and  the  hideous  plot  miscarried.  But  the 
British  authorities  had  by  this  time  resolved  to  carry 
the  matter  further,  and  an  application  was  made  to 
the  Governor  General  of  India  for  five  thousand 
troops. 

Second  War  with  Great  Britain.  In  the  war 
which  now  commenced  the  British  had  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  French  (their  recent  allies  in  the  Crimea), 
who  found  a casus  belli  in  the  murder  of  a French 
priest  in  Kwangsi.  On  the  British  side  Lord  Elgin 
was  sent  out  as  High  Commissioner  and  Plenipoten- 
tiary. The  story  of  his  arrival  at  Singapore  to  find 
an  urgent  message  from  Lord  Canning,  the  Governor 
General  of  India,  telling  of  the  outbreak  of  the 
Sepoy  Mutiny,  and  how,  on  his  own  responsibility, 
he  diverted  the  troops  intended  for  China  to  Cal- 
cutta, with  momentous  results  for  the  British  Em- 
pire and  the  world,  is  doubtless  familiar  to  our  read- 
ers. The  delay  in  China  was  not  serious.  Lord 
Elgin  reached  Hongkong  in  July  and  soldiers  to  re- 
place the  troops  sent  on  to  India  arrived  in  Septem- 
ber. Baron  de  Gros,  the  French  Commissioner,  ar- 
rived on  the  Audacieuse  in  October  and  soon 
after  came  the  U.  S.  S.  Minnesota , with  Mr.  Reed, 
and  the  Russian  gunboat  Amerika  with  Count 
Pontiatine.  The  ultimatum  of  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish was  delivered  to  Governor  Yeh  on  Dec.  10,  and 
the  bombardment  and  capture  of  Canton  followed  on 
the  27th.  On  Jan.  5,  1858,  Governor  Yeh  was  cap- 
tured, not  without  some  farcical  episodes,  and  was 


286  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


sent  a prisoner  to  Calcutta.  He  was  followed  to 
the  ship  by  the  jeers  of  his  own  countrymen,  who,  in 
common  with  the  foreigner,  had  suffered  from  his 
truculence.  In  Calcutta  his  wonted  energy  alto- 
gether deserted  him ; he  did  not  even  care  to  read, 
explaining  that  “ he  already  knew  by  heart  all  there 
was  worth  reading.”  He  died  in  I860. 

The  Treaty  of  Tientsin.  The  Plenipotentia- 
ries proceeded  to  Shanghai  immediately  after  the 
capture  of  Canton,  and  thence  journeyed  to  the 
Peiho.  The  Taku  forts  were  bombarded,  following 
upon  which  a treaty  was  drawn  up,  in  June,  1858, 
at  Tientsin,  to  be  ratified  in  the  following  year.  For 
the  accomplishment  of  this  end  Lord  Elgin’s  brother, 
Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Frederick  Bruce,  was  ap- 
pointed, and  the  party  prepared  to  go  on  to  Peking. 
The  Chinese,  however,  refused  passage  by  way  of 
Tientsin  and  demanded  that  the  embassy  should  pro- 
ceed overland.  On  the  attempt  of  the  ships  to  pass 
the  Taku  forts  they  were  treacherously  fired  upon 
and  two  English  gunboats  sunk.  It  was  during  this 
unfortunate  engagement  that  Captain  Tatnall  of  the 
American  navy,  while  assisting  the  British  marines 
into  action,  gave  utterance  to  the  historic  saying, 
“ Blood  is  thicker  than  water.”  Some  time,  let  us 
hope,  that  saying  will  have  an  application  more  com- 
prehensive still,  even  as  wide  as  humanity  itself. 
After  the  contretemps  of  the  Taku  forts  there  was 
nothing  for  Lord  Elgin  to  do  but  to  resume  the  of- 
fensive. A large  force  was  collected  under  Sir  Hope 
Grant  and  the  allies,  French  and  English,  landed  at 
Pehtang  August  1,  1860.  There  was  some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  between  Sir  Hope  Grant  and  General 


THE  REIGN  OF  HSIEN  FENG  287 

Montauban  as  to  the  precise  plan  of  campaign  to  be 
followed,  but  the  Taku  forts  were  eventually  taken 
and  the  way  lay  open  to  Tientsin.  Lord  Elgin  now 
insisted  that  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin  be  ratified,  and 
sent  a party,  including  Messrs.  Parkes  and  Loch, 
forward  to  Tungchow  to  prepare  for  a Convention. 
The  story  of  the  capture  of  the  emissaries  by  the 
Chinese  General  Sankolinsin  and  of  their  sufferings 
during  a ten  days’  imprisonment  in  a Chinese  dun- 
geon, is  a familiar  one.  Only  eleven  survived  out  of 
the  twenty-three  Englishmen  and  thirteen  Frenchmen 
who  had  been  incarcerated.  All  the  rest  succumbed 
to  the  terrible  tortures  to  which  they  were  subjected. 
The  kindness  shown  by  the  Chinese  criminals  who 
were  Parkes’  fellow-prisoners  is  almost  the  only  re- 
deeming feature  of  the  story,  apart  from  the  courage 
of  the  captives  themselves.  However,  the  advance  on 
Peking  continued,  the  Anting  gate  surrendered,  and 
on  Oct.  24,  1860,  the  Treaty  of  1858  was  ratified 
by  Prince  Kung  (representing  the  Emperor,  who 
was  now  a fugitive  at  Jehol)  and  Lord  Elgin. 
There  were  fifty-six  articles  altogether,  providing, 
amongst  other  things,  for  the  payment  of  an  indem- 
nity, the  establishment  of  a permanent  legation  at 
Peking,  the  cession  of  Kowloon  to  England,  the 
opening  of  Tientsin  as  a treaty  port,  and  an  apol- 
ogy for  the  attack  upon  the  fleet.  The  French 
treaty,  which  was  signed  on  the  following  day, 
pushed  matters  further  and,  in  providing  for  repara- 
tion to  be  made  by  the  Chinese  for  the  confiscation 
of  all  buildings  or  lands  which  had  ever  belonged  to 
the  Christians,  paved  the  way  for  claims  extending 
backwards  a hundred  and  fifty  years  or  more.  This 


288  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


was  an  unjust  and  irritating  measure,  which  compli- 
cated questions  of  land  ownership  such  as  had  been 
regarded  for  generations  as  settled.  A more  seri- 
ous, because  surreptitious,  matter  was  the  insertion 
by  the  Jesuit  interpreter,  Pere  Delamarre,  in  the 
Chinese  version  of  the  treaty  of  two  other  provisions, 
one  securing  that  Christians  should  have  a right 
to  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  all  over  China, 
and  the  other  that  French  missionaries  should  have 
the  right  to  rent  land  in  all  the  provinces  in  the  Em- 
pire and  to  buy  and  construct  houses.  When  this 
pious  fraud  was  discovered,  the  French  Minister 
thought  it  would  do  no  good  to  denounce  his  inter- 
preter, and  therefore  the  treaty  was  treated  by  the 
French  as  binding,  and  never  questioned  by  the  Chi- 
nese ; the  other  powers  profited  by  it  under  the 
“ most  favored  nation  ” clause.3 

The  Destruction  of  the  Summer  Palace. 
Lord  Elgin  felt  that,  inasmuch  as  the  obstinacy  and 
bad  faith  of  the  Court  had  been  responsible  for  the 
protracted  character  of  the  war,  a stern  act  of  jus- 
tice was  necessary  to  reach  the  Imperial  mind  and 
heart.  Nevertheless,  excuse  it  as  we  may,  the  de- 
struction of  the  famous  Y uan-ming-yuan,  or  Summer 
Palace,  was  a most  regrettable  act  of  vandalism. 
It  was  almost  the  only  thing  in  Peking  which  re- 
minded men  of  the  earliest  glories  of  the  dynasty. 
K‘ang  Hsi  had  built  his  palace  and  there  received 
ambassadors  and  legates  from  afar.  In  the  forty- 
eighth  year  of  his  reign  he  made  of  the  palace  a pres- 
ent to  his  son  and  heir,  Yung  Cheng.  Ch‘ien  Lung 
in  turn  inherited  it  and  joined  the  various  buildings 
together  under  the  name  of  Yuan-ming-yuan.  The 


THE  REIGN  OF  HSIEN  FENG  289 

Jesuit  painters  Castiglione  and  Attiret  drew  plans  for 
the  gardens  and  pavilions  and  the  latter  described  it 
in  1743  as  “ a real,  earthly  paradise.”  Now  what 
Frenchmen  had  assisted  to  build  Frenchmen  assisted  to 
destroy.  The  incident  was  a ghastly  prophecy  of  the 
inglorious  aftermath  of  the  Boxer  revolt.  No  won- 
der Lord  Elgin  wrote:  “ War  is  a hateful  business. 

The  more  one  sees  of  it,  the  more  one  detests  it.” 
The  Russian  Advance.  Within  a month  from 
the  signing  of  the  treaties  with  England  and  France 
a treaty  was  signed,  also  at  Peking,  with  Russia. 
By  this  treaty  China  ceded  to  the  Colossus  of  the 
North  all  the  territory  north  of  the  Amur  and  made 
possible  the  establishment  of  the  great  port  of  Vla- 
divostock.  Captain  Brinkley  alleges  that  General 
Ignatieff  had  played  a skillful  game  of  running  with 
the  hare  and  hunting  with  the  hounds.  “ Outside 
Peking  he  gave  to  the  British  and  French  envoys  use- 
ful information  furnished  by  the  Russian  mission; 
inside  Peking  he  persuaded  the  Chinese  that  his  in- 
tervention alone  had  saved  the  Empire  from  perma- 
nent occupation  by  foreign  troops.”  4 

Death  of  the  Emperor.  Hsien  Feng  had 
doubtless  been  shaken  in  health  as  well  as  in  com- 
placency by  his  hurried  flight  to  Jehol,  and  it  hardly 
needed  the  appearance  of  a comet  to  create  alarm. 
Prince  Kung  made  a diplomatic  journey  to  Jehol 
to  arrange  matters  with  regard  to  the  succession  and 
had  hardly  returned  before  the  arrival  of  an  Edict 
proclaiming  the  Crown  Prince  as  heir.  The  further 
news  of  the  Emperor’s  death  on  August  22  soon 
reached  the  capital  and  the  new  Emperor  was  im- 
mediately proclaimed  under  the  title  of  Ki  Tsiang. 


NOTES 


1.  Oliphant  says  “more  than  a month.”  For  all 
the  events  described  in  these  paragraphs  see  “ A Nar- 
rative of  Lord  Elgin’s  Mission,”  by  Lawrence  Oliphant. 

2.  Better  known  perhaps  as  the  author  of  the  hymn 
“ In  the  Cross  of  Christ  I Glory,”  than  as  Governor  of 
Hongkong. 

3.  “ Changing  China,”  p.  47. 

4.  Brinkley,  “ China,”  XII,  p.  50. 


290 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


THE  REIGN  OF  TTJNG  CHIH 
A.  D.  1861-1875. 

Prince  Rung's  Coup  d'etat  — the  Empress  Tsi 
Thsi  — the  fiasco  of  the  fleet  — Sir  Robert  Hart  — 

— The  Burlinghame  Mission  — Chinese  immigration 

— the  Tientsin  massacre  — the  Muhamadan  rebel- 
lion— trouble  in  Central  Asia — trouble  with  Ja- 
pan — the  Emperor's  marriage  — Audience  given 
to  the  Foreign  Ministers  — death  of  T‘ung  Chili. 

Prince  Kung’s  Coup  d’Etat.  Prince  Kung,  the 
sixth  son  of  Tao  Kuang  and  brother  of  the  deceased 
Emperor  Hsien  Feng,  had  not  sized  lip  the  situation 
at  Jehol  a moment  too  soon.  There  a coterie  of  in- 
triguing courtiers,  prominent  amongst  whom  were 
Prince  I and  Prince  Ching,  with  the  statesman  Su 
Shun,  had  possession  of  the  child  Emperor  and  pro- 
posed to  inaugurate  their  command  of  the  situation 
in  connection  with  the  funeral  ceremonies  of  Hsien 
Feng  at  Peking.  Prince  Kung,  wfith  admirable  in- 
sight into  the  affair,  at  once  secured  a sufficient  body 
of  troops  under  General  Sheng  Pao,  produced  an 
edict  (supposedly  confided  to  him  by  the  late  sov- 
ereign just  before  his  death),  appointing  as  Regents 
the  two  Empresses  Dowager,  namely,  the  widow  of 
Hsien  Feng  and  the  mother  of  the  new  Emperor. 

He  then  seized  the  offending  princes  and  Su  Shun. 

291 


292  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


The  latter  was  executed,  the  two  former  permitted 
to  strangle  themselves,  and  the  coup  d'etat  was  ac- 
complished. To  make  clear  the  absoluteness  of  their 
authority,  Prince  Kung  and  the  two  Empresses  now 
proclaimed  the  four-year-old  boy  Emperor  under  the 
new  title  of  T‘ung  Chih. 

The  Empress  Dowager  Tsi  Thsi.  Of  the  two 
Empresses  the  legal  wife  of  Hsien  Feng  was  Tsi-an 
and  generally  known  as  the  Eastern  Empress.  She 
was  distinguished  for  her  womanly  virtues,  but 
played  no  important  personal  part  in  the  politics  of 
her  time.  It  was  quite  the  reverse  with  her  fellow 
Regent,  the  illustrious  Tsi  Thsi,  who  more  than  any 
ruler  of  China  for  the  last  hundred  years  deserves, 
for  her  capacity  and  her  strength  of  character,  the 
epitaph  of  “ Great.”  She  was  born  in  1834  and 
rose  from  a somewhat  lowly  position  to  become  the 
secondary  wife  of  Hsien  Feng  and  the  mother  of  the 
heir.  Thence  she  continued  to  rise  till  “ by  sheer 
ability,  by  her  own  wits,  will  and  shrewdness,  she  at- 
tained the  supreme  power.”  Of  the  private  character 
of  this  notable  personality  the  most  diverse  Hews 
have  been  taken  and  we  must  look  to  the  events  which 
she  more  or  less  controlled  to  do  their  part  in  in- 
terpreting that  side  of  her  career  to  us.  In  later 
years,  after  the  terrible  days  of  Boxerdom,  many 
foreigners  were  enabled  to  get  close  to  this  wonder- 
ful woman,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  those  who  were 
closest  and  most  intimate  have  been  to  a large  extent 
the  most  enthusiastic  as  to  her  general  womanly 
qualities.  For  example,  Mrs.  Conger,  wife  of  the 
American  Minister  at  the  time  of  the  Boxer  troubles, 
sums  up  her  estimate  as  follows : “ Through  this 


PEKING  (FROM  AN  OLD  PRINT) 


THE  REIGN  OF  TTJNG  CHIH 


293 


woman’s  life  one  catches  a glimpse  of  the  hidden 
quality  of  China’s  womanhood.  It  savors  of  a qual- 
ity that  might  benefit  that  of  the  Western  world. 
The  Empress  Dowager  of  China  loved  and  honored 
her  great  country:  that  country  loved  and  honored 
its  great  ruler.  May  China  continue  to  honor  her 
commendable  deeds  and  make  it  possible  for  the 
world  to  place  her  name  among  the  makers  of  his- 
tory.” 1 In  person  Tsi  Thsi  was  tall  and  erect,  with 
pronounced  Tatar  features,  eyes  piercing  as  those 
of  an  eagle  and  a voice  made  for  the  exercise  of  au- 
thority. But  forty-seven  years  of  more  or  less  con- 
stant pre-occupation  with  the  cares  of  state  lay 
before  the  Empress  in  1861,  so  that  wC  must  not 
anticipate  any  judgment  on  her  career. 

The  Fiasco  of  the  Fleet.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  T‘aiping  rebellion  was  still  engaging 
the  resources  of  the  Empire.  This  circumstance, 
which,  together  with  the  operations  of  the  French 
and  English,  made  plain  the  potential  usefulness  of 
an  armed  flotilla,  led  to  the  suggestion  from  Prince 
Kung,  seconded  by  the  British  Minister,  Sir  Fred- 
erick Bruce,  that  China  should  proceed  to  equip  her- 
self in  this  respect.  The  occupation  of  the  native 
city  of  Shanghai  by  the  rebels  had  also  suggested  the 
collection  of  the  maritime  duties  by  three  foreign 
officials  appointed  for  the  purpose  by  England, 
France  and  the  United  States.  After  the  Treaty  of 
Tientsin  the  advantages  of  the  plan  were  so  obvious, 
through  the  assurance  given  to  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment of  a reliable  source  of  revenue,  that  the  plan 
was  continued,  the  collectorship,  however,  being  left 
in  the  hands  of  England  alone.  In  1862  the  In- 


294  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


spector  General  of  Maritime  Customs  was  Mr.  Ho- 
ratio Lay,  and  as  he  happened  at  the  time  to  be  in 
London,  it  was  to  him  that  Prince  Rung  entrusted 
the  business  of  buying  a fleet.  Whether,  as  Brinkley 
suggest^,  “ the  magnitude  of  the  trust  disturbed  Mr. 
Lay’s  mental  equilibrium,”  or  whether  he  really  mis- 
understood the  character  of  the  task  assigned  him, 
the  fact  remains  that  when  eight  vessels  arrived  in 
China  under  Captain  Sherard  Osborn,  who  was  given 
to  understand  that  he  was  to  receive  orders  only 
from  Peking  and  through  Mr.  Lay,  there  was  at  once 
a considerable  display  of  consternation.  In  conse- 
quence, the  fleet  remained  inactive  and  Sir  Frederick 
Bruce  was  obliged  to  come  to  the  rescue  on  behalf  of 
the  British  Government.  The  fleet  was  returned  to 
England  for  sale,  Mr.  Lay  was  dismissed,  and  the 
visions  of  China  as  a great  naval  power  faded  away 
into  thin  air.  One  good  result  followed  in  the  ap- 
pointment of  Robert  Hart  to  succeed  the  unfortu- 
nate Mr.  La}r. 

Sir  Robert  Hart.  Foreigner  as  he  was,  no  one 
better  deserves  a place  in  any  history  of  China  than 
the  man  who  for  so  many  years  was  known  as  “ the 
great  I.  G.”  The  honors  which  he  was  entitled  to 
wear,  and  which,  as  he  said,  made  him  look  like  a 
Christmas  Tree  were  not  only  from  the  rulers  and 
learned  societies  of  the  world  at  large,  but  also  from 
the  land  he  loved  and  served  so  well.  He  had  the 
Red  Button  of  the  first  class,  Ancestral  Rank  of  the 
first  class  of  the  first  order  for  three  generations 
and  the  Brevet  title  of  Junior  Guardian  of  the  Heir 
Apparent.  Born  in  Ireland  and  graduating  from 
college  in  Belfast  in  1853,  he  went  out  to  China  in 


THE  REIGN  OF  T‘UNG  CHIH 


295 


a subordinate  position  in  H.  B.  Majesty’s  Consular 
service.  Thence  he  rose  until  his  entry  upon  the 
duties  of  Inspector  General  in  the  Chinese  Maritime 
Customs  brought  out  and  developed  his  wonderful 
powers  of  organization.  The  secret  of  his  success 
lay  in  his  loyalty  and  in  his  capacity  for  hard  work. 
“ I long  schooled  myself,”  he  wrote  in  1893,  “ into 
taking  an  interest  in  my  work  and  regarding  work 
done  as  work’s  best  reward.”  1 What  the  work  was 
the  present  condition  of  the  Chinese  Customs  service 
is  sufficient  to  show.  Even  outside  of  this,  out  of  mere 
good-natured  readiness  to  help  out  an  embarrassed 
Government,  Hart’s  achievements  have  been  suffi- 
ciently notable.  One  illustration  is  afforded  in  the 
successful  negotiation  of  the  Treaty  with  France  in 
1885.  Nine  months  passed,  80,000  taels  had  been 
expended  in  telegrams ; then  all  at  once  came  the 
decisive  message  from  Sir  Robert  on  March  31 : 
“ Signez  sans  delai  mais  ne  signez  pas  premier  avril.” 
To  write  of  Sir  Robert’s  services  to  China  ade- 
quately would  be  to  write  a book.  The  brave  old 
man  had  his  faith  in  China  sadly  shaken  by  the 
Boxer  Revolt  in  which  his  house  with  all  its  priceless 
treasures  perished,  but  he  took  his  part  cheerfully 
in  the  defense  of  the  Legation  and,  when  all  was  over, 
his  volume  of  Essays,  “ Those  from  the  Land  of 
Sinim,”  showed  no  abatement  of  generous  judgment. 
He  died  Sept.  1,  1911,  and  we  may  fitly  adopt  for 
our  own  the  words  of  an  obituary  notice  in  the  Lon- 
don Times  on  the  following  day : “ With  his  re- 

markable personality  and  wide  range  of  sympathy, 
deep  learning  and  almost  poetic  imagination,  Sir 
Robert  Hart  endeared  himself  to  a very  wide  circle 


296  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


of  friends  and  acquaintances.  His  character  was 
as  complex  as  his  personality  was  sympathetic.  The 
Spartan  training  of  a Belfast  Irishman  was  tempered 
through  his  long  residence  in  the  East  to  a broad 
and  tolerant  acceptance  of  life  in  all  its  phases. 
Upon  the  traditions  of  a Puritan  stock  was  grafted 
the  easy-going  philosophy  of  the  East;  and  the  com- 
bination of  these  qualities  made  up  a character  that 
stands  out  against  the  background  of  modern  Chi- 
nese history  as  romantic  a figure  as  that  of  General 
Gordon.  . . . Taking  him  all  in  all,  Sir  Robert  Hart 
leaves  behind  him  a record  as  an  administrator  that 
has  been  rarely  excelled  and  an  example  from  which 
the  Chinese  in  the  long  run  cannot  fail  to  derive 
guidance  and  benefit.” 

The  Burlinghame  Mission.2  A striking  depar- 
ture from  precedent  was  made  in  1867  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  Imperial  Government  to  send  abroad 
its  envoys.  The  choice  fell  upon  the  Hon.  Anson 
Burlinghame,  who  had  filled  for  several  years  the 
post  of  U.  S.  Minister  with  great  acceptance.  With 
him  were  associated  Chi  Kan  and  Sun  Kia-kii  to- 
gether with  several  secretaries  and  students.  Their 
avowed  object  was  to  inform  the  American  and  Euro- 
pean world  of  China’s  desire  for  progress  and,  so  far 
as  Mr.  Burlinghame  was  concerned,  this  was  done 
with  an  enthusiasm  which  somewhat  misled  some  of 
his  hearers.  The  foreign  public  became  immediately 
attracted  by  the  announced  longing  of  the  far  East 
for  railways,  telegraphs  and  shipping.  In  conse- 
quence a serious  reaction  was  produced  as  soon  as  it 
was  learned  that  the  desire  of  China  for  these  things 
had  been  somewhat  overstated.  Nevertheless,  Mr. 


THE  REIGN  OF  TTJNG  CHIH  297 


Burlinghame’s  Mission  was  not  without  good  results. 
It  gave  to  the  world  a more  sympathetic  picture  of 
China  than  it  had  heretofore  possessed  and  showed 
that  the  Empire  was  no  longer  insensitive  to  foreign 
opinion.  Unfortunately,  Mr.  Burlinghame’s  sudden 
death  at  St.  Petersburg,  February,  1870,  cut  short 
and  rendered  incomplete  the  mission  he  had  under- 
taken. In  the  meantime  he  had  visited  the  United 
States,  England,  France  and  Prussia. 

Chinese  Immigration.  One  thing  secured  as  a 
result  of  the  Burlinghame  Mission  to  the  United 
States  was  the  signing  of  a treaty  in  July,  1863, 
which  is  specially  interesting  to  us  to-day  as  en- 
couraging the  immigration  of  Chinese  to  America. 
The  Treaty  44  cordially  recognizes  the  inherent  and 
inalienable  right  of  man  to  change  his  home  and  alle- 
giance.” The  first  arrival  of  Chinese  in  the  United 
States  was  in  1848  when  two  men  and  one  woman 
arrived  at  San  Francisco  in  the  brig  Eagle. 
Then  came  the  discovery  of  gold  and  the  lure  drew 
men  from  every  part  of  the  earth.  In  1852  over  two 
thousand  Chinese  came.  At  first  they  were  cordially 
welcomed  and,  in  the  light  of  later  events,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  at  a meeting  held  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Jan.,  1853,  the  following  resolution  was  unani- 
mously adopted  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  H.  H.  Haight, 
afterwards  Governor  of  California : “ Resolved , 

That  we  regard  with  pleasure  the  presence  of  greater 
numbers  of  these  people  among  us  as  affording  the 
best  opportunity  of  doing  them  good  and  through 
them  of  exerting  an  influence  in  their  native  land .” 
Later,  when  the  number  of  Chinese  had  increased  to 
some  forty-five  thousand,  the  opportunity  of  44  doing 


298  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


them  good  ” was  forgotten  and  sensational  fears  were 
entertained  lest  the  Chinese  should  swamp  American 
institutions  and  corrupt  American  morals.  In  this 
way  prejudice  was  created  and  fanned  until  Congress 
passed  the  Restriction  Act  of  1882  which  was 
amended  in  1884  and  reenacted  in  1903. 

The  Massacre  at  Tientsin.  It  was  quite  nat- 
ural that  the  French  treaty  of  1860,  with  its  in- 
sistence on  claims  to  property  dating  back  to  the 
17th  Century,  should  create  a bad  popular  feeling, 
but  no  one  could  have  foreseen  the  terrible  manner 
in  which  this  feeling  would  eventually  manifest  it- 
self. As  in  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire,  when 
Christians  were  suspected  of  all  manner  of  unnatural 
crimes  and  vices,  so  amongst  the  uneducated  masses 
of  China.  The  stories  of  kidnapping  and  making  of 
medicine  out  of  children’s  eyes  were  readily  believed 
and  in  some  cases  the  belief  was  encouraged  by  those 
in  a position  to  know  better.  Unfortunately,  too, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Orphanages  were  not  always 
careful  to  explain  the  eagerness  with  which  they  wel- 
comed children  to  their  institutions.  Thus  when 
deaths  occurred,  as  of  course  they  would,  not  infre- 
quently, there  was  all  too  much  material  upon  which 
to  build  a terrible  fabric  of  misunderstanding.  The 
massacre  of  Tientsin,  which  took  place  in  June,  1870, 
was  the  result  of  popular  panic,  induced  under  these 
circumstances,  and  of  the  excitable  temperament  of 
the  French  consul,  M.  Fontanier,  who  resented  the 
appointment  of  a Chinese  Committee  of  investiga- 
tion. The  investigation  of  the  Orphanage  in  ques- 
tion was  the  very  thing  the  French  authorities  should 
have  welcomed  and  even  courted.  But  M.  Fontanier 


THE  REIGN  OF  TTJNG  CHIH 


299 


drove  the  gentlemen  sent  to  investigate  from  the 
premises  and  a little  later  at  the  yamen  of  Ch‘ung- 
hou  drew  his  sword,  struck  the  table,  and  fired  two 
shots  from  his  revolver  at  the  Commissioner.  Pushed 
to  the  door,  he  then  fired  into  the  hostile  crowd  out- 
side and  was  thereupon  murdered  by  the  infuriated 
mob.  The  populace  then  attacked  the  Cathedral, 
massacred  ten  Sisters  of  Mercy,  two  priests,  four 
other  French  subjects  and  three  Russians.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  Cathedral,  which  was  a constant  annoy- 
ance to  the  Chinese  as  standing  on  elevated  ground, 
eight  Protestant  Churches  were  wrecked,  after  which 
the  mob  calmed  down.  An  investigation  was  ordered 
and,  after  pressure  had  been  put  upon  the  Govern- 
ment by  a joint  note  from  the  seven  foreign  minis- 
ters, punishment  was  meted  out  to  certain  offenders. 
Possibly  the  men  punished  were  only  what  is  known 
as  “ purchased  criminals,”  but  Ch‘ung-hou  was  sent 
to  France  to  apologize  for  the  outrage  against 
French  citizens.  The  wave  of  anti-foreign  feeling 
in  the  meantime  rose  very  high  and  the  discussion 
of  the  whole  problem  of  missionary  work  in  China 
assumed  grave  importance. 

The  Muhamadan  Rebellion.  The  province  of 
Yunnan  had  been  largely  peopled  by  Muhamadans, 
possibly  since  T‘ang  times,  and  recruits  to  the  faith 
had  constantly  arrived  from  Koko  Nor.  During  the 
T‘aiping  rebellion  they  had  been  grievously  op- 
pressed by  the  mandarins,  and  at  length,  goaded  to 
rebellion,  had  taken  the  cities  of  Talifu  and  Yun- 
nanfu.  The  two  leaders  were  at  first  Ma  and  Tu. 
The  former  after  a while  returned  to  Manchu  alle- 
giance and  fought  against  his  former  associates. 


300  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


The  officials  seem  to  have  had  the  usual  idea  of  sup- 
pressing the  rebellion  by  a campaign  of  extermina- 
tion, but  the  Panthay  leader,  Tu,  kept  open  his 
communications  through  Burmah  for  the  supply  of 
arms  and  ammunition,  gained  widespread  acknowl- 
edgment as  the  Sultan  Suleiman,  and  even  sent  his 
adopted  son  Hassan  to  obtain  aid  from  England. 
Next  year  the  Chinese  forces,  set  free  by  the  ending 
of  the  T4aiping  rebellion,  besieged  Talifu,  and  the 
city  was  reduced  to  the  direst  extremities.  Tu  en- 
deavored to  purchase  safety  for  the  people  of  the 
city  by  the  surrender  of  himself,  but  it  was  his  life- 
less body  which  the  Chinese  general  received,  as  Tu 
poisoned  himself  whilst  being  borne  in  his  sedan  chair 
to  the  appointment.  His  head  was  preserved  in 
honey  and  sent  to  the  Emperor,  whilst,  in  defiance 
of  the  promise  given,  thirty  thousand  men,  women 
and  children  perished  in  one  indiscriminate  butchery. 
Sultan  Suleiman’s  death  took  place  on  Jan.  15,  1873. 

Trouble  in  Central  Asia.  Quite  independently, 
apparently  of  the  Panthay  rebellion  in  Yunnan,  there 
broke  out  an  insurrection  in  the  provinces  of  Shensi 
and  Kansuh,  which  spread  into  Central  Asia  and  in- 
flamed the  ever-restless  ambition  of  the  tribes  of 
Kashgaria.  A plot  against  the  lives  of  two  Com- 
missioners sent  to  investigate  was  avenged  by  the 
order  given  for  a general  massacre  of  all  followers 
of  Islam.  In  some  cities  this  was  averted  by  the 
Muhamadans  turning  the  tables  on  their  assailants 
and  in  Khokand  a surviving  son  of  Jehangir  raised 
the  standard  of  rebellion,  aided  by  a much  more  effi- 
cient soldier  than  himself,  the  famous  Yakoob  Khan. 
In  a little  while  Yakoob  threw  off  his  pretense  of 


THE  REIGN  OF  TTJNG  CHIH 


301 


subordination  and  was  acknowledged  by  the  Amir  of 
Bokhara  as  Athalik  Ghazi.  The  disturbances 
spreading  to  Hi  brought  the  Russians  upon  the  scene, 
who  gave  formal  notice  to  China  of  their  intention 
to  occupy  the  country  till  the  rebellion  was  subdued. 
Meanwhile  the  Imperial  Government  was  moving,  if 
slowly,  and  General  Tso  Tsung-tfang  with  remark- 
able skill  set  about  a patient  and  persistent  recon- 
quest of  the  country.  His  army  is  sometimes  known 
as  the  “ agricultural  army  ” on  account  of  the  plan 
adopted  of  supplying  themselves  with  the  necessary 
food  by  lengthy  sojourns  at  the  successive  oases 
where  crops  could  be  produced.  In  this  way  they 
advanced  slowly  but  surely,  across  the  desert,  sow- 
ing and  reaping.  Patient  tactics  of  this  sort,  rein- 
forced by  undoubted  skill  and  valor  in  battle,  at  last 
broke  the  formidable  power  of  Yakoob  Khan.  The 
defeated  leader  fled  to  Korla,  where  he  died,  probably 
from  poison.  The  rebellious  cities  of  Yarkand  and 
Khotan  submitted  and  peace  was  restored  in  1878. 

Trouble  with  Japan.  In  entirely  another  direc- 
tion China  had  found  herself  within  measurable  dis- 
tance of  another  war  which  might  not  have  ended  so 
fortunately.  The  island  of  Taiwan,  or  Formosa,  had 
always  been  a very  troublesome  appanage  to  China, 
and  the  Government  seldom  concerned  itself  with  the 
district  as  long  as  there  was  no  open  rebellion.  In 
1868,  however  Japan  had  occasion  to  protest  against 
the  massacre  of  over  fifty  sailors  from  the  Riukiu 
Islands.  The  Imperial  Government  maintained  at 
first  that  the  murdered  islanders  were  China’s  own 
subjects,  but  the  Japanese  pushed  matters  to  the  ex- 
tent of  landing  a punitive  force,  and  the  Chinese  ul- 


302  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


timately  consented,  through  the  good  offices  of  Sir 
Thomas  Wade,  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  expedition, 
while  the  claim  of  the  Japanese  to  the  Riukiu  Islands 
was  tacitly  acknowledged. 

The  Marriage  of  T‘ung  Chih.  By  1872  the 
young  Emperor  had  reached  the  age  of  sixteen,  and 
it  was  determined  to  provide  him  with  a consort. 
The  Empress  Dowager  chose  for  this  high  honor  the 
lady  Ahlwta,  daughter  of  a distinguished  literatus , 
and  the  wedding  was  celebrated  with  great  ceremony 
on  Oct.  16,  1872.  As  the  marriage  of  an  Emperor 
was  always  assumed  to  mark  his  coming  of  age,  the 
Empresses  took  the  opportunity  to  surrender  into 
the  hands  of  T‘ung  Chih  the  responsibilities  of  gov- 
ernment on  Feb.  23,  1873. 

Audience  Given  to  Foreign  Ministers.  Fol- 
lowing upon  the  marriage  of  the  Emperor  an  event 
took  place  of  the  greatest  possible  significance.  On 
June  15,  1873,  the  following  Edict  appeared:  “ The 

Tsung-li  Yamen  having  presented  a memorial  to  the 
effect  that  the  Foreign  Ministers  residing  in  Peking 
have  implored  us  to  grant  an  audience  that  they 
may  deliver  letters  from  their  Governments,  we  com- 
mand that  the  Foreign  Ministers  residing  in  Peking, 
who  have  brought  letters  from  their  Governments,  be 
accorded  audience.  Respect  this.”  The  audience 
was  given  in  the  66  Pavilion  of  the  Purple  Light,” 
where  it  had  been  usual  to  receive  the  tribute-bearing 
envoys  from  the  barbarians.  Six  ministers  attended, 
representing  Japan,  England,  the  United  States, 
France,  Russia  and  Holland.  This  was  on  the  29th 
of  June,  1873.  The  representatives  of  the  powers 


THE  REIGN  OF  TTJNG  CHIH 


303 


were  not  received  in  the  precincts  of  the  palace 
proper  until  1894. 

Death  of  T‘ung  Chih.  The  Empresses  had  not 
long  to  regret  their  freedom  from  the  cares  of  state. 
At  the  beginning  of  January,  1875,  the  youthful 
Emperor  was  reported  as  “ happily  ” suffering  from 
smallpox  and  on  the  12th  of  the  month  he  passed 
over  to  the  ancestors.  Whether  his  death  was  super- 
induced by  poison  will  never  be  known.  Suspicion 
is  aroused  by  the  fact  that  the  young  Empress  Ah- 
luta,  together  with  her  unborn  babe,  died  twTo  months 
afterwards.  The  two  Downgers  at  once  proclaimed 
the  four-year-old  child  of  Prince  Ch‘un,  the  seventh 
son  of  Hsien  Feng.  Thus  the  succession  passed  for 
the  first  time  out  of  the  direct  line  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty. 


NOTES 


1.  “ Letters  from  China/’  p.  377.  See  also 
“ Court  Life  in  China/’  by  Dr.  Isaac  T.  Headland; 
“ China’s  New  Day/’  by  the  same  author. 

2.  An  account  of  the  life  and  mission  of  Anson  Burl- 
inghame  has  just  been  published  by  Mr.  Frederick 
Wells  Williams. 


304 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU 
A.  D.  1875-1898. 

Accession  of  Kwang  Hsii  — the  Margary  affair  — 
China's  first  railway  — the  restoration  of  Kuldja  — 
trouble  over  Korea  — war  with  France  — marriage 
of  the  Emperor  — anti-Christian  riots  — war  with 
Japan  — the  treaty  of  Shimonoseki  — European  ag- 
gressions — the  Reform  movement  — Chang  Chih- 
tung  — Kang  Yu-wei  — the  Reform  Edicts  of 
Kwang  Hsii  — the  Empress'  coup  d'etat. 

Accession  of  Kwang  Hsii.  The  child  Tsai  t‘ien 
had  been  posthumously  adopted  as  the  son  of  T‘ung 
Chih  and  was  now  placed  upon  the  throne  under  the 
name  of  Kwang  Hsii , “ Illustrious  Succession.”  The 
placing  of  another  child  upon  the  Dragon  Throne 
enabled  the  masterful  Dowager,  mother  of  the  late 
Emperor,  to  exercise  an  almost  undisputed  power  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  new  reign.  Those  who 
gained  access  to  the  Emperor  from  the  outer  world 
have  reported  favorably  of  his  intellectual  capacity 
and  character,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  his 
genuine  desire  for  reform.  But  probably  he  com- 
bined with  his  good  intentions  some  lack  of  judg- 
ment and  a by  no  means  unexplainable  inexperience 

of  affairs.  It  is  in  any  case  evident  that  his  person- 

305 


306  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


ality  had  in  it  nothing  which  could  make  headway 
against  the  masterfulness  of  his  aunt,  who  certainly 
in  these  years  deserved  the  description  so  often  ap- 
plied to  her,  of  “ the  only  man  in  China.” 

The  Margary  Affair.  Partly  arising  out  of  the 
Muhamadan  rebellion  in  Yunnan,  which  had  main- 
tained communications  with  Burmah  for  the  sake  of 
getting  weapons  and  supplies,  and  following  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  of  1862  between  Great  Britain 
and  Burmah,  the  desire  had  been  growing  in  India 
for  new  trade  connections  with  China  through  the 
south-western  provinces.  Hence  a mission  had  been 
arranged  for  and  passports  issued  by  the  Govern- 
ment at  Peking  to  a party  under  Col.  Browne.  To 
this  party  Mr.  Augustus  Margary,  a member  of  the 
Chinese  consular  service,  had  been  attached.  He  set 
out  to  meet  the  rest  of  the  expedition  at  Bhamo  and 
accomplished  his  mission  in  safety.  Then  on  the 
return  journey  he  was  attacked  by  Chinese  troops 
at  the  small  town  of  Manwyne  and  treacherous^ 
murdered.  This  happened  in  February,  1875.  Col. 
Browne  with  great  difficulty,  and  largely  through  the 
bravery  of  the  Sikh  troops  who  accompanied  him, 
made  his  way  back  to  Bhamo.  The  outrage  led  to 
prolonged  investigations  and  negotiations,  carried 
on  mainly  by  Sir  Thomas  Wade  and  Li  Hung-chang. 
These  resulted  finally  in  the  Chifu  Convention  of 
Sept.  13,  1876.  By  this  Convention  China  agreed 
to  send  a mission  of  apology  to  England,  to  proclaim 
throughout  the  Empire  the  right  of  foreigners  to 
travel,  and  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  200,000  taels. 
Several  ports  of  call  on  the  Yangtse  river  were  also 
opened  for  trade  and  one  further  result  was  the 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU  307 


establishment  of  a permanent  representative  of  China 
at  the  English  Court. 

China’s  First  Railway.  Perhaps  we  should  say, 
“ the  first  steam  railway,”  for,  according  to  the  Vi- 
comte  D’Ollone,  “ the  Chinese  invented  the  railway,” 
and  he  describes  how,  on  the  borders  of  Tibet,  “ in 
the  flagstones  which  form  the  pavement  two  little 
channels  are  cut,  which  all  wheelbarrows  follow,  com- 
ing or  going.”  1 It  was  more  difficult  to  recommend 
to  China  the  railway  of  the  Westerner  and  the  “ iron 
horse,”  but  this  is  how  the  first  experiment  came 
about.  In  the  first  years  of  Kwang  Hsii  terrible 
famines  had  visited  China.  It  is  estimated  that  nine 
million  people  perished  in  the  four  provinces  of 
Chihli,  Shansi,  Honan  and  Kansuh  alone.  A very 
active  part  in  the  relief  measures  was  taken  by  Li 
Hung-chang , who  for  the  first  time  was  led  to  ex- 
perience the  inefficiency  of  Chinese  methods  of  trans- 
portation. Under  these  circumstances  a company 
of  foreign  merchants  undertook  to  construct  a rail- 
way from  Shanghai  to  Wusung,  a distance  of  twelve 
miles.  The  innovation  aroused  all  the  prejudices  of 
Chinese  conservatism.  The  populace  feared  for  the 
graves  of  the  ancestors,  the  boatmen  were  troubled 
about  the  imminent  competition,  the  believers  in  feng 
sliui  2 trembled  lest  the  luck  of  the  land  should  be 
disturbed,  and  most  men  disliked  the  probable  exten- 
sion of  foreign  influence.  Hence,  no  sooner  was  the 
line  in  operation,  than  the  Chinese  determined  to 
make  it  permanently  inoperative.  They  walked  de- 
liberately in  front  of  the  engine,  to  transform  them- 
selves from  hostile  but  comparatively  ineffective  hu- 
man beings  into  even  more  hostile  and  terribly  potent 


308  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


spirits.  The  excitement  increased  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  Government  was  constrained  to  buy  up  the 
line,  tear  up  the  rails  and  dump  the  engines  into  the 
river.  The  rails  were,  eventually,  we  believe,  ex- 
ported to  Formosa,  but  no  more  attempts  were  made 
to  build  railways  in  China  till  1881,  when  Ww  Ting- 
fang  had  influence  enough  to  secure  the  construction 
of  the  line  to  the  capital. 

The  Restoration  of  Kuldja.  We  have  already 
followed  to  its  close  the  suppression  of  Yakoob 
Khan’s  rebellion  in  Kashgaria,  but  it  will  be  remem- 
bered that  Russia  had  taken  advantage  of  the  un- 
certain situation  in  order  to  occupy  Kuldja.  After 
the  fall  of  Kashgar,  Dec.  17,  1877,  demands  were 
made  on  Russia  for  the  return  of  the  occupied  ter- 
ritory. To  effect  this,  CIVung-hou,  whom  we  have 
already  encountered  as  heading  the  mission  of  apol- 
ogy to  France  after  the  Tientsin  massacre,  was  sent 
to  St.  Petersburg.  The  wily  Muscovite  so  far  over- 
reached the  Chinese  diplomat  that  the  latter  returned 
with  the  Treaty  of  Livadi-a , by  means  of  which  the 
return  of  Kuldja  was  promised  on  the  payment  of 
five  million  rubles.  This  to  China  seemed  like  paying 
too  high  a price  for  the  return  of  her  own  property, 
and  a storm  of  indignation  broke  upon  the  head  of 
the  ambassador.  Prince  Ch‘un,  the  Emperor’s  fa- 
ther, clamored  for  war,  and  the  future  Viceroy  Chang 
Chih-tung  appears  upon  the  scene  clamorous  for 
CKung-hou’s  head.  The  unfortunate  diplomat  was 
sentenced  to  decapitation,  a sentence  which  would 
undoubtedly  have  been  carried  out  but  for  a personal 
letter  from  Queen  Victoria.  The  respited  official  re- 
tired into  private  life  and  died,  less  summarily,  of 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU  309 


creeping  paralysis  in  1893.  A new  instrument  for 
diplomacy  appeared  in  the  famous  Marquis  Tseng , 
son  of  the  General  Tseng  Kuo-fan,  who  had  rendered 
noteworthy  service  against  the  T‘aipings.  Tseng, 
who  had  taught  himself  English  with  the  help  of 
Murray’s  Grammar  and  a Nuttall’s  Dictionary,  had 
become  Minister  to  Great  Britain,  and  he  was  now 
sent  to  St.  Petersburg  to  obtain  something  more  sat- 
isfactory than  the  Treaty  of  Livadia.  He  succeeded 
admirably  and  the  new  treaty  was  ratified  Aug.  19, 
1881.  We  may  add  here  that  the  Marquis  Tseng 
subsequently,  in  1883,  arranged  the  Opium  Conven- 
tion with  Great  Britain,  was  a member  of  the  Tsung- 
li  Yamen,  served  on  the  Admiralty  Board  and  the 
Board  of  Revenue  and  died,  full  of  honors,  in  1890. 
Among  other  faculties  possessed  by  him  in  addition 
to  those  of  the  diplomat,  we  may  mention  his  calli- 
graphy. Even  the  Emperor  was  glad  to  obtain 
specimens  of  his  skill  in  this  department  of  art  and 
literature  combined. 

Trouble  over  Korea.  Affairs  had  not  been 
straightened  out  in  Kashgaria  before  they  began  to 
assume  a gloomy  complexion  in  Korea.  The  penin- 
sula had  been  long  regarded  as  a tributary  nation 
but,  as  in  Formosa,  little  trouble  was  taken  with  the 
government  so  long  as  Korea  did  not  embroil  China 
with  other  powers.  Unfortunately  this  was  just 
what  happened  not  infrequently.  The  persecution 
of  Christianity  in  Korea  involved  the  murder  of  some 
French  missionaries  in  1866;  an  American  ship  was 
burned  and  its  crew  murdered ; and  Japan  had  com- 
mercial grievances  of  long  standing.  As  China 
seemed  very  anxious  to  disclaim  responsibility  the 


310  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Japanese  cleverly  took  advantage  of  the  situation 
and  concluded  a treaty  directly  with  Korea  in  which 
the  independence  of  the  principality  was  assumed. 
China,  thus  outwitted,  endeavored  to  regain  lost 
ground  by  means  of  intrigue  and  factions  arose  lead- 
ing to  so  unsatisfactory  a condition  that  the  two 
countries  were  brought  more  than  once  to  the  very 
verge  of  war.  Ultimately,  following  upon  several 
tragic  episodes,  a modus  vivendi  was  found  by  Li 
Hung-chang  and  Count  Ito,  by  which  the  troops  of 
the  nations  were  withdrawn.  This  agreement  kept 
the  peace  until  1894.  It  was  further  agreed  that,  in 
case  either  nation  felt  it  necessary  to  send  troops  into 
Korea,  due  notice  of  the  intention  should  be  given.3 

War  with  France.  Some  territory  had  been 
obtained  from  China  by  France  as  far  back  as  1787. 
In  1858  a further  advance  had  been  made  by  the  tak- 
ing of  Saigon  and  the  consequent  extension  of 
French  influence  through  Cochin  China  and  Cambo- 
dia. For  this  treaty  recognition  was  obtained  in 
1862.  After  the  Franco-German  war  France  began 
to  seek  a restoration  of  prestige  in  her  Colonial  Em- 
pire. A treaty  was  made  with  Annam  in  1874  with- 
out consultation  with  the  suzerain  power,  by  which 
the  Red  River  and  its  ports,  Haiphong  and  Hanoi, 
were  opened  for  trade.  Since  this  territory  was  used 
for  the  opening  up  of  trade  routes  into  Yunnan  the 
French  soon  found  themselves  in  difficulties  with  the 
guerilla  troops  known  as  Black  Flags  (largely  made 
up  of  fugitives  from  the  insurrectionary  wars  in 
Yunnan),  with  the  secret  support,  it  was  believed,  of 
the  Chinese  Government  behind  them.  No  war  was 
declared  on  either  side,  but  the  French,  in  carrying 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU  311 


on  her  “ reprisals,”  soon  came  face  to  face  with  the 
regular  Chinese  troops  and  warlike  operations  con- 
tinued during  1883  and  1881.  A convention  drawn 
up  at  Tientsin  by  Li  Hung-chang  and  Captain  Four- 
nier would  have  put  an  end  to  the  conflict,  but  for  the 
impatience  of  the  French  in  taking  possession  of  the 
awarded  territory  before  the  Chinese  general  had  re- 
ceived orders  from  his  superior.  The  consequence 
was  a conflict  in  which  the  French  were  worsted  and 
the  “ reprisals  ” continued,  without  any  declaration 
of  war.  Among  the  incidents  were  the  unjustifiable 
attack  by  Admiral  Courbet  upon  the  forts  and  ships 
at  Fuchow  and  the  bombardment  of  Kelung.  It 
was  to  the  relief  of  all  parties,  the  French  included, 
that,  through  the  good  offices  of  Sir  Robert  Hart,  a 
treaty  was  at  last  signed  in  June,  1885,  by  which 
much  the  same  terms  were  accepted  as  had  been 
agreed  upon  by  Li  Hung-chang  a year  earlier. 
Tongking  now  became  French,  but  China  came  out 
of  the  struggle,  from  a military  point  of  view,  not 
discreditably.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Li  Hung- 
chang's  plans  for  a new  navy  began  to  take  shape 
under  Admiral  Lang  and  that  a new  Navy  Depart- 
ment was  created  under  Prince  Chun,  the  Emperor’s 
father.  The  exigencies  of  the  war  with  France  also 
led  to  the  extension  of  telegraph  lines  which, 
strangely  enough,  did  not  arouse  the  superstitious 
prejudice  of  the  people  as  has  been  the  case  with  the 
railways. 

Marriage  of  the  Emperor.  In  March,  1889, 
the  marriage  of  the  young  Emperor  took  place  with 
unusual  splendor.  The  lady  honored  by  the  Impe- 
rial choice  (i.  e.  not  of  Kwang  Hsii,  but  of  the  Em- 


312  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


press  dowager)  was  Yehonala,  a niece  of  Tsi  Thsi. 
The  festivities  were  on  an  extraordinary  scale,  and 
a large  number  of  honors  were  distributed  to  signal- 
ize the  occasion.  The  event  marked  also  the  assump- 
tion of  sovereignty  by  the  Emperor  and  the  end  of 
Tsi  Thsi’s  second  regency.  An  Edict  issued  at  the 
time  announces : “ The  Emperor  is  now  advancing 

to  manhood,  and  the  greatest  respect  which  he  can 
pay  to  us  will  be  to  discipline  his  own  body,  to  de- 
velop his  mind,  to  pay  unremitting  attention  to  the 
administration  of  the  Government,  and  to  love  his 
people.”  Two  years  later  Kwang  Hsli  gave  his  first 
audience  to  the  foreign  ministers,  held,  as  the  audi- 
ence of  the  reign  of  T‘ung  Chih  had  been,  in  the  Hall 
of  the  Tribute-bearers.  It  was  given  out  as  the  Em- 
peror’s intention  to  hold  these  audiences  annually  in 
the  first  month. 

Anti-Christian  Riots.  The  year  1891  was  ren- 
dered notorious  for  the  anti-foreign  and  anti-Chris- 
tian riots  in  Hunan  and  the  Yangtse  Kiang  valley. 
The  vilest  calumnies  had  been  spread  broadcast 
against  the  Christians,  notably  by  one  Chow  Han,  a 
scholar  of  sufficient  culture  to  know  better.  Puns  on 
such  words  as  Tien  Chu  (Lord  of  Heaven)  and  Yang 
yen  (foreign  men)  enabled  the  caricaturists  to  depict 
the  God  of  the  Christians  as  the  “ Heavenly  Pig  ” 
and  the  white  men  as  the  “ Goat  men.”  The  Tsung-li 
Yamen  was  powerless  to  check  the  riots  and  the  pay- 
ment of  money  indemnities  but  poorly  atoned  for  the, 
cruel  murder  of  missionaries  and  their  converts. 
One  good  result,  however,  was  the  issuance  of  an 
Imperial  Edict  to  this  effect : “ The  propagation  of 

Christianity  by  foreigners  is  provided  for  by  treaty, 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU 


313 


and  Imperial  decrees  have  been  issued  to  the  provin- 
cial authorities  to  protect  the  missionaries  from  time 
to  time.  . . . The  doctrine  of  Christianity  has  for 
its  purpose  the  teaching  of  men  to  be  good.” 

War  with  Japan.  Some  years  before,  Li  Hung- 
chang  had  written  the  words : “ It  is  above  all 

things  necessary  to  strengthen  our  country’s  de- 
fenses, to  organize  a powerful  navy,  and  not  to  un- 
dertake aggressive  steps  against  Japan  in  too  great 
a hurry.”  Unfortunately  for  China  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  great  statesman  were  only  half  fol- 
lowed. The  division  of  the  fleet  into  Northern  and 
Southern  without  mutual  responsibility  proved  to  be 
disastrous  and  in  1894  all  the  prestige  gained  by 
China  in  the  contest  with  France  was  dissipated  like 
a morning  mist.  Into  the  causes  of  this  memorable 
war  it  is  impossible  here  to  go  in  detail.  They  have 
been  summarized  somewhat  as  follows:  1.  The  ran- 

kling sense  of  injustice  created  in  1884;  2.  The  as- 
sassination of  the  Korean  statesman,  Kim  Ok-kuin, 
who  had  been  decoyed  from  Japan  by  Korean  emis- 
saries and  murdered  in  Shanghai ; 3.  The  feeling 
that,  as  Japan  had  opened  Korea  to  the  world,  her 
influence  should  be  something  more  than  nominal ; 4. 
The  unrest  in  Japan,  which  made  foreign  war  an  easy 
way  out  of  a difficult  domestic  situation.  The  actual 
determining  cause  for  the  unsheathing  of  the  sword 
was  the  sending  of  Chinese  troops  into  Korea  with- 
out prompt  notice  given  to  Japan. 

The  Campaign.  Hostilities  actually  began  with 
the  sinking  of  the  English  steamer  Kowshing,  which 
was  being  used  as  a transport  for  the  Chinese  troops, 
on  July  25,  1894.  War  was  declared  August  1 and 


314  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


troops  were  hurried  to  the  Yalu.  The  battle  of 
Pingyang  was  fought  September  15,  six  thousand 
Chinese  being  slain  and  the  remainder  fleeing  north- 
ward in  a most  demoralized  condition.  It  was  in  this 
battle  that  the  Chinese  general,  who  had  ascended  a 
hill  to  direct  the  fight  with  his  fan,  learned,  and  the 
Chinese  government  through  him,  that  the  old  order 
in  the  Orient  was  doomed.  Two  days  later  the  naval 
battle  of  the  Yalu  was  fought  on  somewhat  more 
equal  terms.  The  Chinese  made  a good  fight,  but 
lost  four  ships.  The  actual  invasion  of  China  com- 
menced October  24,  with  the  Japanese  forces  under 
Count  Oyama.  The  advance  was  marked  by  great 
military  skill  and  the  desire  to  gain,  so  far  as  possi- 
ble, the  good  will  of  the  populace  by  whom  they 
passed.  The  famous  fortress  of  Port  Arthur  was 
stormed  on  November  21,  with  a loss  of  only  four 
hundred  men,  a victory  which  was  marred  by  a cruel 
massacre  such  as  sadly  tarnished  the  luster  of  the 
Japanese  arms.  In  the  advance  into  Manchuria  the 
Japanese  forces  had  been  equally  successful,  and  it 
was  becoming  plain  that  it  might  be  well  to  consider 
terms  of  peace.  Mr.  Detring  was  sent  to  Japan  on 
November  27  to  open  up  negotiations,  but  he  had  no 
proper  credentials  and  was  not  received.  Before  a 
second  attempt  could  be  made  the  capture  of  Hai- 
clieng  and  Kaiping  made  the  Japanese  masters  of 
the  whole  of  the  Liaotung  peninsula.  Two  Chinese 
emissaries  had  meanwhile  been  sent  to  treat  for  peace, 
but  they  too  were  insufficiently  accredited.  The 
great  battle  of  Weihaiwei  followed  in  February, 
1895,  and  by  land  and  by  sea  the  Japanese  forces 
were  completely  victorious.  The  one  Chinese  hero 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU 


315 


of  the  war,  Admiral  Ting,  after  hoisting  his  flag  of 
surrender,  committed  suicide  in  his  cabin.  The 
Southern  fleet,  which  all  the  while  was  anchored  in 
the  Yangtse  Kiang,  according  to  the  theory  that  the 
war  concerned  the  North  exclusively,  might  have 
turned  the  scale  of  the  war  had  it  chosen  to  inter- 
vene. The  capture  of  Yinkow  in  Manchuria  nowT 
brought  the  hitherto  despised  “ dwarf  men  ” so  near 
the  gates  of  Peking  that  a serious  effort  for  peace 
had  become  imperative. 

The  Treaty  of  Shimonoseki.  The  emissary  this 
time  was  no  other  than  Li  Hung-chang  himself.  He 
left  for  Japan  on  March  15  and  soon  after  arrival 
wras  shot  at  by  an  over-zealous  Japanese  patriot. 
The  shot,  wrhich  fortunately  was  not  fatal,  cost 
Japan  a good  deal,  since  it  led  to  the  granting  of  an 
armistice  of  some  weeks  (except  in  the  case  of  the 
campaign  in  Formosa),  and  undoubtedly  helped  to 
secure  for  China  more  favorable  terms  than  she  could 
otherwise  have  expected.  A treaty  was  drawn  up 
and  signed  at  Shimonoseki  on  April  17.  It  wras  rati- 
fied at  Chifu  on  May  8 and  provided  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  Korea,  the  cession  of  the  Liaotung  pen- 
insula, Formosa  and  the  Pescadores,  the  payment  of 
two  hundred  million  taels  indemnity,  and  the  opening 
of  certain  ports  in  Hupeh,  Szechwan,  Kiangsu  and 
Chehkiang.  Afterwards,  on  pretense  of  maintaining 
the  integrity  of  China,  the  three  powers  of  Russia, 
Germany  and  France  stepped  in  to  rob  Japan  of  the 
fruits  of  her  victory,  so  far  as  the  Continental  ac- 
quisitions were  concerned.  The  Liaotung  peninsula 
wTas  given  up  and  a further  indemnity  of  thirty  mil- 
lion taels  accepted  instead.  So  came  to  its  close  a 


316  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


campaign  in  which  China’s  reputation  for  military 
and  naval  strength  collapsed  like  a pricked  balloon. 

European  Aggression.  The  sixtieth  birthday  of 
the  Empress  Dowager,  which  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances would  have  been  celebrated  with  lavish  splen- 
dor, and  for  which  great  preparations  had  been 
made,  came  at  a dark  hour  in  Chinese  history,  but 
we  may  regard  as  an  omen  of  good  for  the  future 
that  among  the  presents  received  was  a New  Testa- 
ment in  a silver  casket,  which  was  presented  by  the 
English  and  American  ambassadors  and  graciously 
received.  For  the  present,  however,  the  Empress 
had  but  little  reason  for  looking  kindly  upon  the 
ways  of  the  foreigners.  The  collapse  of  China  be- 
fore the  new  might  of  Japan  had  aroused  the  greed 
of  the  nations  who  regarded  “ the  slicing  of  the 
melon  ” as  an  inevitable  operation  in  which  he  who 
came  earliest  was  likely  to  get  most.  Hence  the 
conclusion  of  peace  with  Japan  inaugurated  a period 
of  aggression  which  led  in  time  to  dire  results. 
Russia  having  posed  as  China’s  friend  in  the  saving 
of  the  Liaotung  peninsula  and  in  the  provision  by 
loan  of  the  means  for  paying  the  indemnity,  felt  en- 
titled to  repay  herself,  by  means  of  the  so-called 
Cassini  Convention,  in  the  leasing  of  Port  Arthur, 
March,  1898.  Germany  had  already  taken  her  re- 
ward in  the  seizure  of  the  Bay  of  Kiaochao  in  Shan- 
tung, November,  1897.  The  reason  given  was  the 
murder  of  two  German  missionaries  who  had  been 
slain  as  a matter  of  fact  to  get  the  local  magistrate 
into  trouble.  Great  Britain  countered  the  Russian 
move  by  obtaining  a lease  of  Weihaiwei  4 on  April  2, 
1898,  and  France,  on  May  2,  obtained  Kwangchou- 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU  317 


wan.  44  By  1899,”  writes  Mr.  A.  J.  Brown,3  44  in  all 
China’s  three  thousand  miles  of  coast  line,  there  was 
not  a harbor  in  which  she  could  mobilize  her  own 
ships  without  the  consent  of  the  hated  foreigner.” 
Yet  Italy  had  the  assurance  to  demand  the  Bay  of 
Sammen  in  Chehkiang  and  might  have  obtained  it 
had  not  the  power  by  this  time  passed  once  more  into 
the  vigorous  hands  of  the  great  Empress  Dowager. 

The  Reform  Movement.  The  agitations  in  the 
Empire  had  hitherto  been  largely  in  the  hands  of  the 
secret  societies  and  had  had  for  their  object  little 
beyond  the  vague  program,  44  Destroy  the  Ch4ing ; 
restore  the  Ming.”  From  this  time  onwards  a new 
spirit  was  abroad  in  the  land.  It  was  the  result  of 
many  cooperating  causes.  The  success  of  Japan 
had  been  clearly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Island  Em- 
pire had  adopted  Occidental  methods.  The  infiltra- 
tion of  Western  learning,  through  the  labors  of  mis- 
sionaries and  others,  was  beginning  to  tell.  Most 
effective  of  all,  there  were  personalities  at  work  with 
a very  definite  end  in  view. 

Chang  Chih-tung.  One  of  the  most  influential 
of  these  was  the  great  viceroy  of  Hupeh,  Chang 
Chih-tung,  whose  book,  shown  by  its  English  title, 
44  China’s  Only  Hope,”  0 is  said  by  a competent  au- 
thority to  have  44  made  more  history  in  a shorter 
time  than  any  other  modern  piece  of  literature.” 
Advertised  throughout  China  on  yellow  posters,  in- 
troduced with  a rescript  from  the  Emperor  himself, 
it  44  astonished  a kingdom,  convulsed  an  empire  and 
brought  on  a war.”  It  wras  by  no  means  the  work 
of  a radical.  Chang  Chih-tung  was  no  advocate  of 
Parliaments.  44  There  were  too  many  fools,”  he  said 


318  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


naively.  Nor  was  he  too  favorable  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  foreign  instructors.  They  seemed  to  him  too 
lazy,  and  inclined  to  dribble  out  their  knowledge  to 
students  in  order  to  make  their  engagement  last 
longer.  But  he  was  in  some  respects  thoroughgoing. 
With  regard  to  opium  he  said : “ Cast  out  the 

poison.”  With  regard  to  education : “ Abolish  the 

eight-legged  essay,”  whilst  he  recommended  that  the 
temples  of  the  two  religions  in  which  he  did  not  be- 
lieve should  be  turned  into  schools.  Above  all  he 
urged  loyalty  to  the  throne,  to  the  race  and  to  Con- 
fucianism. The  book  won  authority  from  the  man 
himself.  Born  in  1835,  scholar,  governor,  viceroy, 
founder  of  universities  and  iron  works,  promoter  of 
coal  mining  and  cotton  spinning,  a brilliant  states- 
man and  an  ardent  patriot,  Chang  Chih-tung  cer- 
tainly deserved  well  of  his  countrymen.  He  died  in 
1910  respected  by  foreigners  for  his  straightforward 
honesty  and  having  accomplished  a great  deal  to- 
wards guiding  the  feet  of  young  China  into  the  path 
of  safe  and  sane  reform.7 

Kang  Yu-wei.  A character  harder  to  estimate 
aright  is  that  of  “ China’s  modern  sage,”  Kang  Yu- 
wei,8  a Cantonese,  whose  studies  on  the  restoration 
in  Japan,  the  decadence  of  Turkey,  the  constitu- 
tional changes  in  England,  and  the  life  of  Peter  the 
Great,  penetrated  in  1897  into  the  royal  palace. 
Kang  Yu-wei’s  friends  have  declared  he  was  by  no 
means  so  precipitate  as  the  Emperor’s  later  actions 
would  imply  and  his  friendship  with  Chang  Chih-tung 
would  argue  for  a certain  measure  of  conservatism. 
His  influence,  however,  is  unmistakable.  As  Secre- 
tary of  the  Tsung-li  Yamen  and  as  publisher  of  a 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU  319 


periodical  entitled  News  for  the  Times  he  had 
ample  opportunity  to  reach  and  influence  others. 
Almost  before  the  argus-eyed  Dowager  was  aware  of 
what  was  going  on  in  the  palace  precincts  the  Em- 
peror was  surrounded  by  persons  and  influences  rec- 
ommended by  Kang  Yu-wei.  For  three  months  44  the 
modern  Confucius  ” reigned  supreme  in  the  Emper- 
or’s counsels ; then  came  the  deluge. 

Kwang  Hsu’s  Reforms.  The  result  of  such  influ- 
ences as  have  been  described,  aided  by  the  natural 
intelligence  of  the  Emperor  and  his  interest  in  west- 
ern toys  and  scientific  experiments,  was  soon  appar- 
ent in  his  acts.  44  We  do  not  lack,”  he  said,  44  either 
men  of  intellect  or  brilliant  talents,  capable  of  learn- 
ing and  doing  anything  they  please;  but  their  move- 
ments have  hitherto  been  hampered  by  old  preju- 
dices.” Kwang  Hsii  was  at  least  resolved  that  this 
should  no  longer  be  true  of  himself.  In  the  early 
part  of  1898  he  is  said  to  have  bought  a hundred  and 
twenty-nine  foreign  books,  a Bible,  maps,  globes  and 
charts.  Moreover,  he  was  determined  to  make  things 
move  outside  the  palace  and  there  is  something  pa- 
thetic in  the  eagerness  with  which  he  launched,  one 
after  another,  those  twenty-seven  ill-fated  Edicts  of 
July,  1898.  They  provided,  with  bewildering  haste, 
and  with  little  or  no  attention  to  the  means  for  car- 
rying them  into  execution,  for  every  reform  which  his 
somewhat  visionary  instructors  had  suggested  to  his 
enthusiasm.  There  was  to  be  a new  university  at 
Peking,  universal  reform  in  education,  extension  of 
railways,  developments  of  art,  science  and  agricul- 
ture, together  with  the  immediate  abolition  of  all 
that  had  hitherto  retarded  the  advance  of  the  Em- 


320  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


pire.  It  was  a beautiful  dream,  but  the  dreamer 
was  destined  to  a very  sudden  and  rude  awakening. 

The  Empress’  Coup  d’etat.  The  Empress  Dow- 
ager was,  as  we  have  seen,  no  novice  at  a coup  d'etat. 
It  had  become  manifestly  a case  for  instant  action 
if  she  were  to  save  herself  and  her  friends  from  the 
consequences  of  the  new  movement.  We  may  also 
give  her  credit  for  the  sincere  belief  that  the  new 
craze  for  western  materialism  was  likely  to  play  into 
the  hands  of  the  greedy  European  powers  ever  on 
the  alert  for  the  partitioning  of  China.  It  is  no 
reflection  on  her  patriotism  that  she  believed  drastic 
measures  were  necessary  for  the  Empire’s  salvation. 
Yiian  Shih-kai  has  been  blamed  by  some  for  warning 
the  Empress  of  what  was  taking  place  in  the  Royal 
Palace.  He  too  may  be  credited  with  the  belief 
that  hot-headed,  inexperienced  young  enthusiasts 
were  not  the  real  leaders  the  time  necessitated.  So 
the  blow  fell;  Kang  Yu-wei  escaped  with  difficulty 
to  live  henceforth  with  a price  upon  his  head.  Most 
of  his  associates  were  ruthlessly  beheaded;  the  poor 
young  Emperor  was  from  this  time  forth  practically 
deposed  and  a prisoner ; and  a new  era  was  inaugu- 
rated by  an  Edict  which  commences  as  follows : 

“ Her  Imperial  Majesty  the  Empress  Dowager, 
Tsi  Thsi,  since  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  the 
late  Emperor  T‘ung  Chih  down  to  our  present  reign, 
has  twice  ably  filled  the  regency  of  the  Empire,  and 
never  did  her  Majesty  fail  in  happily  bringing  to  a 
successful  issue  even  the  most  difficult  problems  of 
government.  In  all  things  we  have  ever  placed  the 
interests  of  our  Empire  before  those  of  others  and 
looking  back  at  her  Majesty’s  successful  handiwork, 


THE  REIGN  OF  KWANG  HSU 


321 


we  are  now  led  to  beseech,  for  a third  time,  for  the 
assistance  from  her  Imperial  Majesty,  so  that  we 
may  benefit  from  her  wise  and  kindly  advice  in  all 
matters  of  State.  Having  now  obtained  her  Majes- 
ty’s gracious  consent,  we  truly  consider  this  to  be 
a great  boon  both  to  ourselves  as  well  as  to  the  peo- 
ple of  our  Empire.”  9 


NOTES 


1.  “In  Forbidden  China/’  by  the  Vicomte  D’Ollone, 

p.  202. 

2.  Literally  “ Wind-water  ’’  (superstition) ; the 
geomantic  philosophy  of  China. 

3.  See  the  “ Story  of  Korea  ” by  Joseph  H.  Long- 
ford, 1911;  also  the  works  of  Ross,  Mackenzie  and 
Gale. 

4.  For  an  exhaustive  account  of  Weihaiwei,  read 
R.  F.  Johnston’s  “ Lion  and  Dragon  in  Northern 
China.’’ 

5.  “ New  Forces  in  Old  China.’’ 

6.  The  Chinese  title  is  “ Chiian  Hsiieh  Pien  ” which 
in  the  French  translation  is  “ Exhortation  a l’Etude  ” or 
“ Exhortation  to  Reform.’’  “ China’s  only  Hope,”  is 
the  title  in  Dr.  S.  I.  Woodbridge’s  translation. 

7.  For  a good  account  of  Chang  Chih-tung  see  Dr. 
W.  E.  Geil’s  “ Eighteen  Capitals  of  China,”  p.  256  fF. 

8.  An  appreciation  of  Kang  Yu-wei  as  a philosopher 
appears  in  the  Hibbert  Journal , 1908. 

9.  The  story  of  these  days  is  well  given  by  Dr. 
Headland  in  “ Court  Life  in  China,”  and  in  Dr. 
Brown’s  “ New  Forces  in  Old  China.” 


322 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


THE  EMPRESS  DOWAGER’S  THIRD 
REGENCY 

A.  D.  1898-1908. 

The  Edicts  of  September  — the  Empress  and  the 
Boxers  — massacre  of  the  missionaries  — the  Siege 
of  the  Legation  — the  relief  of  Peking  — defense  of 
the  French  Cathedral  — the  looting  of  Peking  — the 
Peace  negotiations  — massacre  at  Blagovestchensk 
— events  in  Manchuria  — Li  Hung-chang  — foreign 
affairs  — results  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war  — the 
awakening  of  China  — reforms  of  Tsi  Thsi  — deaths 
of  Emperor  and  Empress  Dowager. 

The  Edicts  of  September.  The  coup  d'etat  of 
the  Empress  was  successfully  carried  out  September 
22,  1898.  Troops  had  been  silently  collected;  the 
Emperor  was  seized  and  consigned  to  the  seclusion 
he  had  doubtless  intended  for  his  aunt.  Two  days 
later  the  Edicts  of  July  were  all  annulled.  At  one 
fell  swoop  the  cardhouse  of  reform  was  shattered  and 
its  authors  seized  or  scattered.  The  Empress 
astutely  managed  to  explain  and  consolidate  her 
assumption  of  power  by  holding  a reception  for  the 
wives  of  the  Ambassadors  who  had  no  alternative  but 
to  accept  the  situation.  A year  later  when  it  was 
announced  that  the  Emperor  had  abdicated  in  favor 

of  Pu  Chii,  the  son  of  Prince  Tuan,  the  Chinese  and 

323 


324  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


foreign  ministers  were  indeed  genuinely  concerned 
and  put  sufficient  pressure  on  Tsi  Thsi  to  cancel  the 
Edict  of  abdication.  The  British  ambassador,  more- 
over, hinted  that  the  health  of  the  incarcerated  Em- 
peror must  be  carefully  considered  or  there  might  be 
consequences.  So,  although  Kwang  Hsu  remained 
in  prison,  there  was  no  further  talk  of  abdication. 

The  Empress  and  the  Boxers.  The  activity  of 
the  Dowager  wras  not  solely  in  the  interest  of  her 
retention  of  power.  She  was  seriously  alarmed  at 
the  aggressions  of  the  foreigners  and  had  a definite 
policy  looking  towards  their  expulsion.  In  the  ener- 
getic words  of  one  of  her  edicts : “ The  various 

Powers  cast  upon  us  looks  of  tiger-like  voracity, 
hustling  each  other  in  their  endeavors  to  be  first  to 
seize  upon  our  innermost  territories.  They  think 
that  China,  having  neither  money  nor  troops,  would 
never  venture  to  go  to  war  with  them.  They  fail  to 
understand,  however,  that  there  are  certain  things 
which  this  Empire  can  never  consent  to,  and  that,  if 
hard  pressed,  we  have  no  alternative  but  to  rely  upon 
the  justice  of  our  cause,  the  knowledge  of  which  in 
our  breasts  strengthens  our  resolves  and  steels  us  to 
present  an  united  front  against  our  aggressors.” 
A weapon  was  unhappily  ready  to  hand.  Among 
the  anti-Manchu  societies  which  were  flourishing  at 
the  time  wras  that  known  as  the  I Ho  Clman , or 
Righteous  Harmony  Fist’s  Association,  popularly 
known  as  the  Boxers.  The  Empress  adroitly  led 
them  to  reconsider  their  anti-dynastic  prejudices  and 
to  enlist  themselves  in  her  anti-foreign  campaign. 
This  they  did  with  a fanatical  enthusiasm  which 
boded  ill.  The  Boxers  were  not  only  madly  hostile 


DOWAGER’S  THIRD  REGENCY  325 


to  the  foreigner  but  were  profoundly  convinced  of 
their  own  invulnerability  to  the  arms  of  the  alien, 
and  their  numbers,  swollen  by  all  the  elements  which 
made  for  mischief,  grew  daily  more  formidable.  An 
alliance  of  anti-reformers  seemed  to  Tsi  Thsi  to  en- 
sure doubly  the  success  of  her  plans. 

Massacre  of  the  Missionaries.  The  first  fury 
of  the  Boxers  fell  upon  the  missionaries,1  who  were 
for  the  most  part  in  the  remoter  districts  of  the 
inflamed  provinces  and  who  were,  for  various  reasons, 
specially  obnoxious  to  the  mob.  Mr.  Brooks,  a mis- 
sionary of  the  Church  of  England  in  Shantung,  was 
murdered  late  in  1899,  and,  after  four  months  of 
unrest  and  futile  negotiation,  the  massacres  were  re- 
sumed on  an  unprecedented  scale.  Messrs.  Norman 
and  Robinson,  English  missionaries,  were  murdered 
in  June,  1900,  the  mission  stations  of  Paotingfu  were 
burned  and  their  inmates  slaughtered.  Dr.  A.  H. 
Smith  sums  up  the  casualties,  so  far  as  they  apply 
to  the  foreign  missionaries,  as  follows : “ The  devas- 

tating Boxer  cyclone  cost  the  lives  of  a hundred  and 
thirty-five  adult  Protestant  missionaries  and  fifty- 
three  children  and  of  thirty-five  Roman  Catholic 
fathers  and  nine  Sisters.  The  Protestants  were  in 
connection  with  ten  different  missions,  one  being  un- 
connected. They  were  murdered  in  four  provinces 
and  in  Mongolia,  and  belonged  to  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  and  Sweden.”  We  must  add  to  these 
figures  several  thousand  native  converts  who  met  their 
fate  with  unflinching  heroism.  But  for  the  strong 
stand  taken  by  some  of  the  Viceroys,  notably  by 
Chang  Chih-tung,  Yuan  Shih-kai,  Liu  K‘un-i,  Tuan 
Fang  and  Li  Hung-chang,  the  bloodshed  wrould  doubt- 


326  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


less  have  been  a thousandfold  worse.  Happily  there 
were  men  in  China  at  this  crisis  who  were  prepared  to 
take  the  consequences  of  disobeying  the  Dowager. 

The  Siege  of  the  Legations.2?  The  advance  of 
the  Boxers  upon  Peking  soon  cut  off  the  communica- 
tions of  the  foreign  ministers  with  the  outside  world. 
But  for  the  timely  arrival  of  some  four  hundred  and 
fifty  marines  from  the  warships  it  would  scarcely 
have  been  possible  to  defend  the  Legations  against 
the  attacks  which  in  a few  days  commenced.  The 
foreign  powers  were  beginning  to  realize  the  critical 
nature  of  the  situation  and  poured  troops  into  Tien- 
tsin, but  the  force  of  two  thousand  men  sent  to 
relieve  their  fellow-countrymen  in  Peking  proved 
insufficient  and  was  forced  to  retire  with  heavy  loss. 
Consequently  the  legations  were  “ straitly  shut  up  ” 
within  the  walls  of  the  British  Embassy  and  disaster 
on  a large  scale  seemed  imminent.  The  chancellor 
of  the  Japanese  legation,  Mr.  Sugiyama,  was  mur- 
dered on  June  11  and  Baron  von  Ketteler,  the  Ger- 
man minister,  on  June  20.  The  attack,  which  at 
times  was  made  with  the  greatest  possible  fury,  at 
other  times  appeared  to  be  half-hearted,  and  it  was 
apparent  that  there  were  divided  counsels  in  the  Chi- 
nese Court.  Later  investigation  brought  out  the  fact 
that  the  reactionary  leader,  Prince  Tuan,  was  the 
most  inveterate  enemy  of  the  besieged,  whilst  it  was 
to  Prince  Jung  Lu  that  they  owed  their  eventual 
escape.  When  the  longed-for  and  long-expected 
relief  came  ammunition  and  food  were  well-nigh  ex- 
hausted and  out  of  the  defending  force  of  less  than 
five  hundred,  sixty-five  had  been  killed  and  a hundred 
and  thirty-one  wounded.  Moreover,  the  anxiety  and 


DOWAGER’S  THIRD  REGENCY  327 


suffering  of  those  within  were  matched  by  the 
suspense  of  the  whole  civilized  world  outside,  igno- 
rant and  apprehensive  of  the  fate  of  the  besieged. 

Relief  of  the  Legations.  Meanwhile  a strong 
relief  force  was  gathering,  and  on  August  4 an  army 
of  twenty  thousand  men,  Japanese,  American, 
French,  Russian,  German  and  British,  was  able  to 
start  for  Peking.  Opposition  was  met  at  various 
points,  but  in  ten  days  the  force  was  within  striking 
distance,  and  on  August  14  General  Gaselee  and  a 
party  of  Sikhs  were  the  first  to  fight  their  way  to  the 
beleaguered  garrison.  Mrs.  Conger  writes : “ Re- 

joice! All  nations  rejoice  and  give  thanks.  Our 
coming  troops  are  outside  the  city  wall.”  Simul- 
taneously with  the  entry  of  the  Allies,  the  Empress 
Dowager,  the  Emperor  and  a few  attendants  left  hur- 
riedly for  the  old  capital  of  China,  Singanfu.3 

Defense  of  the  French  Cathedral.  One  of 
the  most  heroic  episodes  of  the  siege  was  the  defense 
of  the  French  Cathedral  by  Bishop  Favier.  He  had 
with  him  eighty  Europeans  and  three  thousand  four 
hundred  native  Christians,  of  whom  two  thousand 
seven  hundred  were  women  and  children.  Four  hun- 
dred died  during  the  siege,  mostly  buried  under  the 
ruins  caused  by  exploding  mines.  Few  things  in  the 
history  of  this  terrible  time  are  more  touching  than 
the  story  told  by  a Portuguese  Sister  to  Mrs.  Little 
of  how  the  Sisters  used  to  make  the  children  under 
their  care  follow  them  in  a long  train  to  this  side  or 
that  side,  wherever  the  fire  seemed  the  slackest,  until 
at  last  one  day  a large  number  were  blown  up  by  a 
mine  and  killed. 

The  Looting  of  Peking.  An  unhappy  incident 


328  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


of  the  relief  of  the  Legations  was  the  wanton  and 
savage  destruction  with  which  the  foreign  troops 
avenged  the  savagery  of  their  foes.  It  is  useless  now 
to  bandy  reproaches  among  the  various  nationalities 
concerned,  but  it  may  be  said  that  order  was  first 
restored  among  the  Japanese,  then  among  Americans 
and  British.  Many  Chinese,  perfectly  innocent  of 
complicity  with  Boxerdom,  had  occasion  to  rue  the 
entrance  of  the  foreign  forces  into  Peking  and  the 
object  lesson  which  it  was  designed  to  give  was  to  a 
large  extent  spoiled.  Captain  Brinkley  writes: 
“ It  sends  a thrill  of  horror  through  every  white 
man's  bosom  to  learn  that  forty  missionary  women 
and  twenty-five  little  children  were  butchered  by  the 
Boxers.  But  in  Tungchow  alone,  a city  where  the 
Chinese  made  no  resistance  and  where  there  was  no 
fighting,  five  hundred  and  seventy-three  Chinese 
women  of  the  upper  classes  committed  suicide  rather 
than  survive  the  indignities  they  had  suffered.” 
After  this  the  looting  of  the  treasures  of  Yamcns 
and  private  houses  and  the  carrying  off  by  the  Ger- 
mans of  the  beautiful  astronomical  instruments 
given  b}T  Louis  XIV  to  ICang  Hsi  seem  insignificant. 
Our  civilization  of  which  we  boast  so  much  is  still 
something  of  a veneer. 

Peace  Negotiations.  Field  Marshal  General  von 
Waldersee  arrived  with  a German  force  in  September, 
1900,  and,  taking  supreme  command,  at  once  started 
upon  the  complicated  task  of  obtaining  reparation 
for  the  mischief  wrought.  The  Concert  of  Powers 
was  as  usual  somewhat  difficult  to  keep  in  tune  and 
Russia’s  withdrawal  for  her  own  ends,  while  main- 
taining her  claim  for  a very  heavy  indemnity,  was 


DOWAGER’S  THIRD  REGENCY  329 


annoying  and  mischievous.  Ultimately  the  punish- 
ments were  agreed  upon.  Certain  guilty  officials, 
eleven  in  number,  were  to  receive  the  reward  of  their 
misdeeds,  the  importation  of  arms  was  forbidden  for 
a term  of  years,  the  customary  examinations  were  to 
be  suspended  for  five  years,  and  an  indemnity  of 
450,000,000  taels,  divided  among  the  powers,  was 
ordered  paid.  Of  this  last  a number  of  the  missions 
concerned  refused  to  accept  their  share,  feeling  that 
the  blood  spilled  was  not  to  be  valued  in  coin,  and 
the  United  States  generously  arranged  for  its  share 
to  go  to  the  education  of  the  youth  of  China.  There 
was  further  exacted  a mission  of  apology  to  Germany 
and  Japan,  and  memorials  of  the  murdered  Chancel- 
lor and  Ambassador  were  to  be  erected  in  Peking, 
where  they  are  currently  said  to  be  regarded  as 
monuments  in  honor  of  the  assassins. 

The  Massacre  of  Blagovestchensk.  It  has 
already  been  noted  that  Russia  had  detached  herself 
from  the  powers  to  pursue  her  own  policy,  and  this 
involved  the  occupation  of  Manchuria,  avowedly  be- 
cause of  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  country.  It 
was  the  beginning  of  a movement  not  finally  checked 
until  the  Japanese  undertook  to  check  it  with  the 
sword.  A foul  blot  upon  the  first  stage  of  the  occu- 
pation was  the  terrible  massacre  of  Chinese  at 
Blagovestchensk  on  the  Amur,  in  reprisal  for  an  at- 
tack made  by  the  Chinese  on  some  Cossack  troops. 
Thousands  of  men,  women  and  children  were  ruth- 
lessly driven  at  the  bayonet  point  into  the  river.  It 
was  a crime  which  fitly  deserved  the  Nemesis  which 
was  so  soon  to  overtake  the  great  northern  power. 

Subsequent  Events.  Russia’s  hold  on  Man- 


330  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


churia  was  being  tightened  through  the  support  of 
Li  Hung-chang,  while  Liu  K‘un-i  and  Chang  Chih- 
tung,  supported  by  Great  Britain  and  Japan,  made 
so  vigorous  a protest  that  the  Convention  proposed 
by  Russia  was  withdrawn.  On  September  7,  1901, 
the  Peace  Protocol  was  finally  signed  and  in  the  same 
month  the  foreign  troops,  with  the  exception  of  the 
legation  guards,  were  withdrawn  from  Peking.  In 
October  the  Imperial  Court  returned  from  Singanfu, 
and  on  November  7 the  illustrious  statesman,  Li 
Hung-chang,  died. 

Li  Hung-chang.  This  distinguished  man  was 
born  in  1822  in  the  province  of  Anhwui,  graduated 
chin  shih  in  1847,  and  entered  the  Hanlin  college. 
He  came  into  public  notice  in  1853  by  raising  a body 
of  militia  to  operate  against  the  T‘aipings,  was  ap- 
pointed for  his  services  Governor  of  Kiangsu  in  1862 
and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  rebellion  in  1864  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  Earl.  In  1867  he  became 
Viceroy  of  Hukwang,  and  in  1870,  after  the  Tientsin 
massacre,  Governor  of  the  metropolitan  province  of 
Chihli.  During  the  last  days  of  T‘ung  Chih’s  illness 
Li  cooperated  with  the  Empresses  Dowager  for  the 
elevation  of  Kwang  Hsii  to  the  throne.  He  made  with 
his  men  a forced  march  of  eighty  miles  in  thirty-six 
hours  and  arrived  at  Peking  in  time  to  get  command 
of  the  situation.  “ Every  man,”  says  Dr.  Giles, 
“ held  a wooden  bit  in  his  mouth  to  prevent  talking, 
and  the  metal  trappings  of  the  horses  were  muffled.” 
In  1876  Li  Hung-chang  became,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
special  Commissioner  to  settle  the  Margary  affair, 
and  in  this  capacity  drew  up  the  Chifu  treaty. 
After  taking  a leading  part  in  the  negotiations  with 


DOWAGER’S  THIRD  REGENCY  331 


France  in  1884,  some  uneventful  years  passed,  and 
in  1892  he  celebrated  his  seventieth  birthday.  Two 
years  later  he  was  drawn  out  of  his  retirement  by  the 
war  with  Japan  and,  after  losing  his  accumulated 
honors  for  permitting  defeat,  he  was  sent  to  recover 
prestige  by  negotiating  the  Treaty  of  Shimonoseki. 
In  1896  he  went  as  special  Commissioner  to  attend 
the  Coronation  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  has 
been  suspected  of  throwing  his  weight  unduly  into 
the  forwarding  of  Muscovite  ambitions  in  the  Orient. 
His  return  through  Europe  and  the  United  States 
made  him  a great  popular  figure,  and  he  arrived  in 
China  again  to  find  himself  at  the  height  of  his  influ- 
ence, living,  as  we  have  seen,  just  long  enough  after- 
wards to  render  services  to  the  foreign  population 
during  the  Boxer  troubles. 

Foreign  Affairs.  For  several  years  after  the 
conclusion  of  peace  little  or  no  change  was  apparent 
in  China  upon  the  surface.  The  Emperor  exerted 
little  or  no  influence  and  the  humbled  Dowager  w^as 
apparently  indifferent  to  the  fate  of  Manchuria, 
from  which  Russia  showed  no  signs  of  budging.  In 
several  other  directions  concern  was  given  to  the 
Chinese  Government,  notably  in  Tibet,  where,  in 
1904,  Great  Britain  felt  herself  obliged  to  interfere. 
The  city  of  Lhassa  was  occupied  by  General  Young- 
husband  in  August  of  that  year,  but  in  the  end, 
after  the  flight  of  the  Dalai  Lama  to  Mongolia  and 
the  exaction  of  certain  pledges  the  country  was 
handed  over  to  the  suzerain  power.  The  real  ques- 
tion of  the  day  wras  Manchuria.  The  protests  of 
Japan,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  against 
its  continued  occupation  secured  from  Russia  the 


332  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


promise  to  evacuate  in  eighteen  months  from  April, 
1902,  but  as  there  was  manifested  no  intention  of  ful- 
filling the  promise,  Japan  pushed  the  matter  to  the 
ordeal  of  war,  and  on  Feb.  8,  1904,  the  conflict  which 
had  long  been  regarded  as  inevitable  commenced. 

Results  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  The  war 
between  Japan  and  Russia  which  was  waged  during 
1904  and  1905  concerns  China  for  two  special  rea- 
sons. First,  it  was  fought  for  the  most  part  on 
Chinese  soil ; secondly,  the  results  affected  China 
vitally.  Directly,  China  was  affected  through  the 
fact  that  Japan  succeeded  to  the  privileges  of  Russia 
in  the  Liaotung  peninsula  and  in  Manchuria.  Korea 
also  now  came  under  the  direct  rule  of  Japan,  though 
the  formal  annexation  did  not  take  place  until  1910. 
More  important  still  were  the  indirect  results  which 
showed  themselves  in  a new  spirit  making  powerfully 
for  reform  and  a revived  instinct  of  nationality. 
Army  reform  was  carried  out  in  several  of  the  prov- 
inces, notably  by  the  Viceroys  Yuan  Shih-kai  and 
Chang  Chih-tung. 

The  Awakening  of  China.4  Even  the  Empress 
Dowager  was  influenced  by  the  new  spirit.  She  had 
become  much  more  conciliatory  to  foreigners  since 
the  dark  days  of  1900,  and  now  set  herself,  cautiously 
and  tentatively,  to  carry  out  some  of  the  very  re- 
forms she  had  so  ruthlessly  cut  off  in  1898.  In  1905 
an  Imperial  Commission,  headed  by  Prince  Tsai  Tse, 
was  appointed  to  study  out  a system  of  represent- 
ative government  with  a view  to  granting  Parliamen- 
tary control.  The  Commission  in  leaving  Peking 
was  greeted  with  a bomb  which  showed  that  the  old 


DOWAGER’S  THIRD  REGENCY  333 


spirit  was  by  no  means  dead,  but  on  its  return  edicts 
were  issued  promising  at  some  time  in  the  future  a 
National  Assembly.  A further  Edict  in  1908  an- 
nounced that  a Parliament  would  be  convoked  nine 
years  from  that  date. 

Other  Reforms.  A renewal  of  the  anti-opium 
agitation  at  this  time  led  to  definite  and  far-reaching 
results.  An  edict  was  published  September,  1906, 
ordering  all  opium-smoking  to  cease  in  ten  years.5 
The  opium  dens  of  Peking  were  closed  on  the  last  day 
of  1906  and  the  cooperation  of  the  Government  of 
India  was  obtained  to  arrange  for  the  annual  de- 
crease of  exportation  by  10  per  cent,  for  four  years, 
and  subsequently,  if  it  was  shown  that  China  was 
really  in  earnest,  and  was  not  taking  advantage  of 
the  opportunity  to  increase  its  own  production  of 
the  drug.  The  opium  dens  of  Hongkong  were  closed 
in  1908  and  everything  that  has  since  happened  goes 
to  show  a sincere  desire  to  bring  an  iniquitous  traffic 
to  an  end.  Meanwhile,  educational  reform  was 
advancing  steadily  and  a decree  was  issued  in  Sep- 
tember, 1905,  announcing  that  from  the  beginning 
of  1906  the  old  method  of  examination  would  cease. 
The  old  examination  halls  were  in  certain  places  abol- 
ished, temples  were  transformed  into  schoolhouses, 
primary  schools  for  girls  were  established,  thousands  » 
of  students  were  sent  abroad  to  Japan  and  elsewhere, 
and,  as  illustrating  the  desire  of  the  authorities  to 
emphasize  moral  teaching,  Confucius  was  raised  to 
the  same  rank  as  Heaven  and  Earth.  “ In  thank- 
ing the  throne  for  the  honor  conferred  on  his  an- 
cestors, the  head  of  the  family  urged  that  at  the  new 


334  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


college  founded  at  the  birthplace  of  Confucius  the 
teaching  should  include  foreign  languages,  physical 
culture,  political  science  and  military  drill.”  6 
Death  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Empress 
Dowager.  On  November  14,  1908,  according  to 
the  official  account,  the  Emperor,  whose  health  had 
manifestly  suffered  from  his  semi-incarceration, 
passed  away.  On  the  following  day  the  last  great 
representative  of  the  spirit  which  had  won  China  for 
the  Manchus,  the  Dowager  Empress  Tsi  Thsi,  fol- 
lowed her  nephew  to  the  shades  of  the  ancestors. 
Rumors  of  a violent  ending  in  either  or  both  cases 
were  not  unnaturally  rife,  and  in  some  instances  cir- 
cumstantial accounts  were  given  of  a great  Palace 
tragedy,  but  the  matter  may  perhaps  best  be  left  in 
obscurity  undisturbed  by  speculation.  One  may  be 
permitted  to  admire  the  high  spirit  of  the  dead  Em- 
press without  condoning  her  crimes,  and  one  may 
certainly  be  permitted  to  lament  the  ineffectuality  of 
a character  like  that  of  Kwang  Hsu,  genuinely  dis- 
posed towards  reform,  yet  condemned  to  beat  help- 
less wings  against  the  barriers  imposed  by  circum- 
stances, and  by  personalities  stronger  than  his  own. 
Perhaps  his  great  mistake  was  an  over-rash  enthu- 
siasm in  1898.  Even  on  this  point  he  may  be  per- 
mitted to  make  his  own  defense : — “ I have  been 
accused  of  being  rash  and  precipitate,  and  of  at- 
tempting great  political  changes  without  due  con- 
sideration. This  is  an  entire  mistake.  I have 
thought  over  the  condition  of  my  country  with  great 
seriousness  for  several  years.  Plan  after  plan  has 
come  before  my  mind,  but  each  one  I was  afraid  to 
put  into  action,  lest  I should  make  some  blunder  that 


DOWAGER’S  THIRD  REGENCY  335 


would  bring  sorrow  upon  my  Empire.  In  the  mean- 
while China  is  being  dismembered.  Shantung  has 
been  occupied  by  the  Germans.  The  Liaotung  pen- 
insula practically  belongs  to  the  Russians,  and  For- 
mosa has  been  given  over  to  the  Japanese.  Whilst  I 
am  waiting  and  considering,  my  country  is  falling 
into  pieces,  and  now,  when  I attempt  heroic  measures 
I am  accused  of  rashness.  Shall  I wait  till  China  has 
slipped  from  my  hands  and  I am  left  a crownless 
King?  ” 


NOTES 


1.  A sane  discussion  of  the  Missionary  Problem  in 
China  will  be  found  in  Chester  Holcomb’s  “ The  Real 
Chinese  Question.” 

2.  For  the  Siege  of  the  Legations  and  Boxer  Re- 
volt the  following  may  be  commended:  “ China  in  Con- 

vulsion/’ A.  H.  Smith;  “Siege  Days,”  A.  H.  Mateer; 
“The  Siege  of  Peking,”  W.  A.  P.  Martin;  “China’s 
Book  of  Martyrs,”  Luella  Miner;  “ The  Outbreak  in 
China,”  Dr.  F.  L.  Hawks  Pott.  Also,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  one  who  visited  Peking  immediately  after, 
Pierre  Loti’s  “ Les  Derniers  Jours  de  Pekin.” 

3.  The  flight  of  the  Emperor  is  described  by  Mr. 
Francis  Nichols  in  “ In  Hidden  Shensi.” 

4.  Read  “ The  Awakening  of  China,”  by  Dr.  W. 
A.  P.  Martin. 

5.  For  a strong  indictment  of  the  Opium  traffic  and 
a description  of  its  results,  read  Samuel  Merwin’s 
“ Drugging  a Nation.”  Also  Report  of  the  Opium 
Commission,  1912. 

6.  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (11  th  Ed.)  vi  211a. 


336 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


THE  REVOLUTION 
A.  D.  1911-1912. 

Accession  of  Hsuan  Tung  — signs  of  the  times  — 
the  anti-dynastic  movement  — Sun  Yat-sen — the 
revolution — Yuan  Shih-kai — peace  negotiations 
— abdication  of  the  Emperor  — end  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty. 

Kwang  Hsii  was  followed  immediately  by  the  proc- 
lamation of  the  infant  nephew  of  the  late  Emperor,, 
Pu  Yi,  son  of  Prince  Chun.  The  child  monarch  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Hsuan  Tung  and  his  father  was 
appointed  Regent,  while  the  two  great  Viceroys, 
Yuan  Shih-kai  and  Chang  Chih-tung,  were  named  as 
Grand  Guardians  of  the  Heir.  With  another  child 
upon  the  throne  the  outlook  was  at  least  uncertain, 
but  at  this  moment  few  could  have  predicted  the 
events  so  soon  to  rise  above  the  horizon. 

Signs  of  the  Times.  An  event  of  bad  omen 
shortly  after  the  commencement  of  the  new  reign  was 
the  dismissal  of  Yuan  Shih-kai,  whose  rheumatism 
was  urged  as  an  excuse  for  his  compulsory  retire- 
ment, but  who  was  probably  feared  on  account  of  his 
foreign-trained  troops.  In  other  respects  the  tide 
of  reform  seemed  still  flowing.  Railway  develop- 
ments were  manifest  on  every  hand.  The  Peking- 

Kalgan  Railway  was  opened  in  October,  1909;  the 

337 


338  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


same  year  the  line  from  Shanghai  to  Nanking  was 
opened  for  through  traffic;  and  in  1910  the  French 
line  was  completed  from  Hanoi  to  Yunnanfu.  Of 
still  greater  moment  was  the  constitution  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Assemblies  in  1909  and  the  creation  of  a Sen- 
ate in  the  following  year.  Nevertheless,  with  all 
these  signs  of  reform  initiated  by  the  government, 
deeper  forces  were  at  work,  of  which  apparently  the 
authorities  were  quite  unaware. 

The  Anti-dynastic  Movement.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Revolution  which  was  so  soon  to  come,  a 
revolutionary  agent  is  reported  to  have  said : “ Our 

party  does  not  draw  its  force  from  its  groups,  but 
from  exterior  organizations,  societies,  corporations, 
associations  of  every  kind.  We  launch  forth  our 
ideas ; they  fall  where  they  can,  always,  however,  on 
good  soil.  With  us  revolutions  are  made  with  the 
deep-seated  forces  of  the  race  which,  at  a given  mo- 
ment, which  we  are  unable  to  predict,  manifest  them- 
selves abruptly.”  This  is  a truth  which  has  not 
always  been  appreciated.  Republicanism  did  not 
conquer  in  China  by  its  own  means,  but  by  taking 
advantage  of  means  provided  by  many  different  ele- 
ments. Yet  there  wras  one  man  who  at  this  time  and 
for  long  before  had  been  working  to  bring  the  various 
groups  into  harmony  and  to  make  possible  the  over- 
throw of  the  Manchu  dynasty,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a Chinese  Republic. 

Sun  Yat-sen.  This  man  was  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen,1 
who  deserves  to  be  remembered  as  much  for  the  years 
that  he  spent  in  obscure  and  sometimes  apparently 
hopeless  agitation  as  for  the  achievements  which 
brought  his  name  prominently  into  the  newspapers  of 


THE  REVOLUTION 


339 


the  world.  Sun  Wen,  or,  as  he  is  more  generally 
called,  Sun  Yat-sen,  was  born  in  1866  in  the  province 
of  Kwangtung,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  accom- 
panied his  mother  to  Honolulu.  Here  for  three 
years  he  was  a pupil  in  the  Anglican  Mission  School, 
Iolani  College,  and  was  then  transferred  to  Oahu 
College.  Returning  to  China,  he  entered  Queen’s 
College,  Hongkong,  and,  after  another  visit  to  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  took  up  the  study  of  medicine  at 
Canton.  Subsequently  he  was  at  the  College  of 
Medicine  in  Hongkong,  but  soon  commenced  the 
career  of  an  agitator  and  organizer  against  the 
Manchus.  Forced  to  flee  from  China,  he  visited 
New  York  and  London,  where  in  1896  he  put  forth 
what  might  be  called  the  first  manifesto  of  the  Revo- 
lution. He  declares  that  since  the  authorities  at 
Peking  had  failed  to  learn  the  lesson  which  contact 
with  the  outside  world  had  given  them,  he  considered 
the  door  closed  to  pacific  methods  and  would  hence- 
forth be  an  advocate  of  violence.  He  arrived  in  Lon- 
don on  the  first  of  October,  1896,  and  was  kidnaped 
on  the  11th,  at  the  instance  of  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, as  he  says,  “ almost  before  he  had  learned  to 
distinguish  between  Holborn  and  the  Strand.”  Con- 
fined in  the  Chinese  Legation,  he  made  his  imprison- 
ment known  to  friends  through  a paper  thrown 
into  the  street,  and  his  liberation  was  promptly 
secured  by  the  British  Government.  In  the  years 
that  followed  Dr.  Sun  labored  indefatigably  for 
his  cause,  traveling  incessantly  under  all  kinds 
of  disguises,  entering  into  relations  with  men  and 
societies,  obtaining  money  for  his  projects  and  writ- 
ing in  explanation  of  them.  “ The  old  monarchy 


340  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


must  transform  itself  into  a Republic,”  he  wrote  in 
1904,  and  two  years  after,  in  Tokyo,  he  succeeded  in 
welding  together  the  different  elements  of  the  anti- 
dynastic  movement,  so  as  to  give  tangible  purpose  to 
the  revolutionists  of  every  color.  How  well  he  laid 
his  plans  the  events  of  the  fall  of  1911  will  bear 
witness. 

The  Revolution.  There  are  some  things  which 
are  so  universally  anticipated  that  when  they  do 
happen  they  take  everybody  by  surprise.  It  was  so 
with  regard  to  the  Chinese  Revolution.  Every  news- 
paper, every  missionary,  every  diplomat,  foretold  it 
time  and  time  again.  Yet  when  the  outbreak  came 
in  September,  1911,  the  exclamation  on  the  lips  of 
all  was  “ How  sudden ! ” In  a sense  it  was  sudden, 
because  the  explosion  did  not  take  place  at  the  con- 
templated time.  A coup  de  main  had  been  attempted 
as  far  back  as  1907  on  the  frontier  of  Tongking  and 
had  failed.  The  insurrections  broke  out  here  and 
there,  any  one  of  which  might  have  fired  the  main 
charge.  In  the  summer  of  1911  those  in  the  secret 
knew  it  would  come  soon,  but  it  came  six  months 
sooner  than  had  been  planned.  The  immediate  cause 
was  the  Szechwan  Railway  strike,  due  to  the  fear 
that  the  Four  Power  Loan  would  lead  not  only  to 
the  introduction  of  foreign  capital  and  material,  but 
also  of  foreign  political  control.  The  strike  necessi- 
tated the  movement  of  troops  from  Wuchang  west- 
ward, and  this  movement  led  to  the  rising  in  Wu- 
chang against  the  Manchus.  Three  ringleaders  were 
promptly  decapitated,  but  their  blood  was  the  seed 
out  of  which  the  Revolution  sprang  with  magical 
force.  With  the  Revolutionary  Committee  alive  to 


THE  REVOLUTION 


341 


its  opportunity  and  Li  Yuan-hung  at  the  head  of 
the  revolutionary  army,  in  fifteen  days  all  the  lower 
Yangtse  Kiang  valley  was  lost  to  the  Empire,  and  by 
mid-November  fourteen  provinces  had  declared  their 
independence.  City  after  city,  including  Ichang, 
Changsha,  Kiukiang,  were  captured  in  October,  and 
before  the  end  of  the  month  a remarkable  and  grov- 
elling edict  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor  appeared, 
“ a whining  appeal  for  the  mercy  of  the  people,” 
combined  with  a promise  to  grant  a Constitution 
and  remove  the  grievances  of  the  insurrectionists. 
Shanghai  went  over  to  the  rebels  on  November  1 ; 
Soochow  and  Hangchow  followed  suit,  and  the  war- 
ships under  Admiral  Sah  went  over  in  a body.  In 
an  edict  of  November  4 the  Emperor  is  made  to  say: 
“ Hereafter  anything  which  the  people  may  suggest, 
if  it  is  in  accordance  with  public  opinion,  we  will 
openly  adopt.  Heaven  owns  the  people  and  pro- 
vides rulers  for  them.  The  people’s  ears  and  eyes 
are  Heaven’s  ears  and  eyes.” 

Yuan  Shih-kai.  Meanwhile  the  authorities  at 
Peking  were  moved  to  call  Yuan  Shih-kai  from  his 
seclusion.  He  was  the  only  man  who  seemed  likely 
to  succeed ; if  he  failed,  the  Grand  Council  would  not 
be  sorry  to  witness  his  disgrace.  He  demurred 
somewhat,  naturally  doubtful  as  to  whether  his 
“ rheumatism  ” was  sufficiently  healed,  but  eventually 
arrived  at  Peking  on  November  13,  accepted  the  Pre- 
miership, chose  a cabinet,  composed  largely  of  un- 
known quantities,  and  prepared  to  gain  time  by 
negotiations.  With  Nanking  as  yet  untaken  and 
Wuchang  and  Han}rang  recaptured,  it  was  evidently 
the  psychological  moment  for  diplomacy.  By  secur- 


342  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


ing  a truce  Yiian  Shih-kai  strengthened  his  position 
from  day  to  day  and,  though  personally  in  favor  of 
a limited  monarchy,  was  prepared  to  accept  the  real 
mandate  of  the  people  for  the  creation  of  a Republic. 

Peace  Negotiations.  The  resignation  of  the 
Regent  on  December  6 simplified  matters,  as  he  had 
been  vacillating  throughout.  In  his  place  the  Em- 
press Dowager  was  appointed.  The  Shanghai  Con- 
ference was  held  the  third  week  of  December,  T‘ang 
Shao-yi  representing  the  Imperialists  and  Wu  Ting- 
fang  the  Republicans.  The  Revolutionary  Commit- 
tee was  even  at  this  time  urging  the  Presidency  of  the 
Republic  upon  Yiian  Shih-kai,  but  the  astute  Premier 
was  still  non-committal,  and  the  Conference  broke  up 
without  result  two  or  three  days  after  its  opening. 
Nevertheless,  the  drift  towards  the  Republic  was 
plainly  irresistible,  and  on  December  28  the  Imperial 
family  left  Peking,  whilst  an  edict  proclaimed  that 
the  question  of  Monarchy  or  Republic  was  to  be  left 
to  a National  Assembly.  The  next  day  a provisional 
Convention,  meeting  at  Nanking,  elected  Dr.  Sun 
Yat-sen  the  first  President  of  the  Chinese  Republic. 
In  this  capacity  he  held  a review  of  the  fleet  at 
Shanghai  on  Jan.  12 , 1912. 

Abdication  of  the  Emperor.  Even  without  the 
help  of  the  projected  National  Convention  affairs 
were  now  shaping  themselves  towards  a certain  end. 
All  through  January,  1912,  plans  wTere  being  con- 
sidered for  the  abdication  of  the  Imperial  house. 
These  plans  were  favored  by  Prince  Ching,  who  was 
convinced  of  the  hopelessness  of  reestablishing  Man- 
chu  authority  in  the  provinces.  The  Nanking  Com- 
mittee was  perfectly  willing  to  cooperate  with  Yiian 


/‘WJ.L. 


YUAN  SHIH-KAI 


THE  REVOLUTION 


343 


Shih-kai  in  this  matter,  and  Sun  Yat-sen  showed  his 
customary  reasonableness  and  unselfishness  in  his 
willingness  to  retire  from  the  Presidency  in  favor  of 
the  elder  statesman.  However,  the  truculent  oppo- 
sition of  the  ex-Boxer  leader,  Tieh  Liang,  delayed 
matters  without  assisting  the  cause  of  the  Manchus, 
and  it  was  not  till  February  7 that  the  announcement 
of  the  abdication  of  Hsuan  Tung  was  made.  It 
secured  suitable  and  generous  provision  for  the  Em- 
peror, Princes  and  hereditary  nobles,  and  declared 
that  all  “ the  Five  Families,”  Chinese,  Manchus, 
Mongols,  Muhamadans  and  Tibetans  should  he 
treated  on  an  equal  footing. 

End  of  the  Manchu  Dynasty.  The  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-seven  years  of  Manchu  rule  ended  on 
February  12,  1912.  On  this  day  three  edicts,  each 
commencing  in  the  customary  way,  were  issued.  The 
first  runs  in  part  as  follows:  “To-day  the  people 

of  the  whole  Empire  have  their  minds  bent  upon  a 
Republic,  the  Southern  provinces  having  initiated 
the  movement  and  the  northern  generals  having  fav- 
ored it  subsequently.  The  will  of  Providence  is  clear 
and  the  people’s  wishes  are  plain.  How  could  I for 
the  sake  of  the  glory  and  the  honor  of  one  family 
thwart  the  desire  of  teeming  millions?  Wherefore 
I (the  Empress  Dowager)  with  the  Emperor  decide 
that  the  form  of  Government  in  China  shall  be  a 
Constitutional  Republic  to  comfort  the  longing  of 
all  within  the  Empire  and  to  act  in  harmony  with 
the  ancient  sages,  who  regarded  the  throne  as  a 
public  heritage.”  Yuan  Shih-kai  is  then  given  plen- 
ary power  to  establish  a Provisional  Republican 
Government  and  to  act  in  cooperation  with  the  Re- 


344  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


publican  Provisional  Government  at  Nanking  to 
assure  peace  and  tranquility. 

The  third  edict  exhorts  all  to  quietness  and  har- 
mony and  speaks  of  the  desire  of  the  Throne  to  ter- 
minate the  period  of  anarchy  and  to  restore  to  the 
land  the  blessings  of  peace. 

Sun  \ at-sen  at  once  sent  a telegram  expressing 
his  extreme  delight  at  the  news  of  the  Emperor’s  ab- 
dication, and  requesting  the  presence  of  Yuan  Shih- 
kai  at  Nanking  immediately.  But  the  latter  wisely 
enough  declined  to  leave  Peking,  and  ere  long  a 
remarkable  deputation,  representing  New  China, 
frock-coated  and  silk-hatted,  arrived  at  the  Capital 
to  place  in  the  hands  of  the  new  President  the  tre- 
mendous responsibility  a successful  revolution  had 
entailed. 

The  End  of  a Dynasty.  The  feelings  of  the 
world  were  perhaps  most  fittingly  voiced  in  the  words 
of  a striking  leading  article  which  appeared  in  the 
London  Times , Februarv  16,  1912:  — 

“ The  4 Son  of  Heaven  ’ has  abdicated,  the  Manchu 
dynast}^  reigns  no  longer,  and  the  oldest  Monarchy 
of  the  world  has  been  formally  constituted  a Re- 
public. History  has  witnessed  few  such  surprising 
revolutions  and  none  perhaps  of  equal  magnitude, 
which  has  been  carried  out  in  all  its  stages  with  so 
little  bloodshed.  Whether  the  last  of  these  stages 
has  been  reached  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  the  future. 
Some  of  those  who  know  China  best  cannot  but  doubt 
whether  a form  of  Government  so  utterly  alien  to 
Oriental  conceptions  and  to  Oriental  traditions  as 
a Republic  can  be  suddenly  substituted  for  a Mon- 
archy in  a nation  of  four  hundred  millions  of  men, 


THE  REVOLUTION 


315 


whom  kings  with  semi-divine  attributes  have  ruled 
since  the  first  dim  twilight  of  history.  China  or,  at 
all  events,  articulate  China  has  willed  to  have  it  so. 
She  has  embarked  with  a light  heart  upon  this  great 
adventure  and  we  heartily  desire  that  it  may  bring 
her  the  progressive  and  stable  government  she 
craves.” 


NOTE 


1.  The  book  “ Sun  Yat-sen  and  the  Awakening  of 
China/'  by  the  Reformer’s  friend  Dr.  James  Cantlie, 
is  disappointing  and  omits  many  important  facts. 


346 


CHAPTER  XXX 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 

The  installation  of  Yuan  Shih-kai  — administer- 
ing the  Republic  — a year  after — the  Mongolian 
situation  — financial  affairs  — the  Anglo-Chinese 
Opium  agreement  — Death  of  the  Empress  Lung  Yu 

— the  electoral  system  — the  opening  of  Parliament 

— a call  to  prayer. 

Installation  of  Yuan  Shih-kai.  The  formal 
installation  of  Yuan  Shih-kai  as  Provisional  Presi- 
dent took  place  at  Peking  on  March  10.  The  cere- 
mony is  described  as  “ stately  and  impressive  and 
worthy  of  the  historic  occasion.”  The  oath  taken 
by  Yiian  runs  as  follows:  “ Since  the  Republic  has 

been  established  many  works  have  been  performed. 
I shall  endeavor  faithfully  to  develop  the  Republic, 
to  sweep  away  the  disadvantages  of  absolute  Mon- 
archism, to  observe  the  Constitutional  laws,  to  in- 
crease the  welfare  of  the  country,  and  to  cement 
together  a strong  nation,  embracing  all  the  five  races. 
When  the  National  Assembly  appoints  a permanent 
President  I shall  retire.  This  I swear  before  the 
Chinese  Republic.”  On  April  1 Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen 
and  the  Provisional  Government  resigned  the  seals 
of  office,  the  first  elected  President  of  the  Republic 
retiring  with  the  respect  due  to  an  unselfish  and  high- 
minded  patriot.  On  April  29  an  Advisory  Council 

representing  all  the  Provinces,  Mongolia,  Tibet  and 

347 


348  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Koko  nor,  assembled  at  Peking  under  the  presidency 
of  Lin  Sen,  a relative  of  the  famous  Commissioner 
Lin  of  the  Opium-war  fame.  A deeply  impressive 
address  was  delivered  by  Yuan  Shih-kai  and  it  was 
generally  conceded  that  the  outlook  was  hopeful. 

Administering  the  Republic.  Notwithstanding, 
however,  a hopeful  outlook  the  new  President  had  in 
administering  the  Republic  difficulties  with  which  to 
contend  which  would  have  staggered  a less  experi- 
enced statesman.  Some  of  these  we  shall  have  to 
speak  of  presently,  but  the  result  of  Yiian’s  first  few 
months  of  office  was  undoubtedly  to  strengthen  his 
position  in  the  country.  The  appointment  of  Dr. 
G.  E.  Morrison  as  Political  Adviser  brought  to  his 
side  the  assistance  of  one  whose  wide  knowledge  of 
foreign  affairs  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  exist- 
ing conditions  in  China  (arising  from  fifteen  years’ 
residence)  were  bound  to  be  of  the  highest  value. 
The  Cabinet  under  T‘ang  Shao-yi  was  not  a success, 
but  a new  Cabinet  under  Lu  Cheng  was  nominated 
and  approved  by  the  Advisory  Council  in  June.  In 
August  a somewhat  troublesome  question  arose  over 
the  arrest  and  subsequent  execution  of  General 
Chang  Chin-wu  and  General  Hwang-hui  on  the 
charge  of  promoting  a second  revolution  in  the  inter- 
est of  some  southern  malcontents.  There  was 
naturally  a good  deal  of  protest  on  the  part  of 
radical  sympathizers,  but  the  President’s  strong  posi- 
tion was  proved  and  no  crisis  came. 

A Year  After.  Apart  from  two  difficulties  of 
a special  character  still  to  be  described,  the  outlook 
for  the  Republic  a year  after  the  Revolution  was  not 
discouraging.  Writing  a few  weeks  before  this,  Dr. 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


349 


Morrison  says : “ People  hardly  realize  the  immense 

change  that  has  had  to  take  place  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  country.  Under  the  old  regime  no  man 
could  hold  office  in  the  province  of  his  birth.  Now 
the  reverse  rule  is  observed.  Most  officials  in  the 
provinces  are  now  natives  of  the  provinces  in  which 
they  are  serving.  Surely  the  interests  of  the  prov- 
ince are  thus  better  served  than  under  the  old  sys- 
tem. ...  For  the  first  time  the  people  who  pay  the 
taxes  have  a voice  in  the  expenditure  of  their  taxes. 
These  changes  have  involved  the  recasting  of  the 
whole  internal  machinery  of  government.  That  the 
change  has  been  effected  with  such  comparative 
smoothness  should  inspire  hope  in  the  future  of  the 
country  and  should  enable  observers  to  realize  how 
little  foundation  there  is  for  hysterical  and  sensa- 
tional forecasts  of  civil  war  and  disruption.”  This 
was  the  situation  when  the  anniversary  of  the  Revo- 
lution was  observed  October  10,  1912.  There  were 
certain  political  changes  and  the  inevitable  readjust- 
ments following  from  the  adaptation  of  the  Chinese 
patriarchal  system  to  the  conditions  of  western  com- 
mercial life.  Beyond  this,  the  substance  of  the  na- 
tional existence  remained  the  same.  The  London 
Times  asserts  on  September  27 : “ All  this  will 

remain  in  spite  of  the  change  from  the  Manchu  Dy- 
nasty to  a so-called  Republic.  The  heads  of  the 
Republic  will  merely  take  the  paternal  position  of 
the  Emperors  to  themselves  and  as  likely  as  not  will 
either  disguisedly  or  openly  perpetuate  another  dy- 
nasty. Indeed  no  other  solution  to  a patriarchal 
country  seems  possible.  This  revolution,  then,  is  not 
really  an  important  change  in  China,  it  is  not  a social 


350  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


revolution,  effecting  a social  change.  It  is  only  a 
change  of  directors.  The  main  business  will  remain 
the  same.”  On  this  point,  of  course,  opinion  will 
differ. 

The  Mongolian  Situation.  Two  difficulties 
have  been  mentioned  which  it  has  been  the  fate  of  the 
Republican  Government  to  encounter  from  the  very 
start.  The  first  is  that  relating  to  Mongolia.  Soon 
after  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  Mongolia  de- 
clared its  independence  of  China  and  established 
itself  under  an  ecclesiastical  ruler,  known  as  the 
Hutukhtu.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  new 
Republic  could  probably  have  overcome  the  insur- 
rectionary movement  and  Mongolia  could  have  been 
brought  to  occupy  the  position  among  the  Five  Fam- 
ilies indicated  by  the  new  flag.  But  as  time  went  on 
it  became  apparent  that  behind  the  Mongolian  desire 
for  independence  was  intrigue  on  the  part  of  Russia. 
This  intrigue  culminated  in  a Treaty  made  directly 
between  Russia  and  Mongolia  without  reference  to 
the  supreme  claims  of  China.  The  text  of  the 
Treaty  was  as  follows: 

44  1.  The  Imperial  Russian  Government  shall  lend 
Mongolia  support  in  the  maintenance  of  the  auton- 
omous regime  established  by  the  latter,  and  in  vin- 
dication of  her  right  to  maintain  a National  Army 
and  to  prevent  the  invasion  of  her  territory  by  Chi- 
nese troops  or  its  colonization  by  Chinese  subjects. 

44  2.  The  Regent  of  Mongolia  and  the  Mongolian 
Government  concede  to  Russian  subjects  and  to  Rus- 
sian trade  in  Mongolian  territory  the  enjoyment  of 
the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  heretofore  and  as 
set  forth  in  the  annexed  protocol.  It  is  understood 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


351 


that  subjects  of  other  powers  are  not  to  receive  in 
Mongolia  more  extensive  rights  than  those  conceded 
to  Russians. 

“ 3.  If  the  Mongolian  Government  considers  it  to 
be  necessary  to  conclude  a special  agreement  with 
China  or  any  other  Foreign  State  such  agreement 
is  not  to  traverse  or  modify  the  articles  of  this 
Treaty  and  Protocol  without  the  assent  of  the  Im- 
perial Russian  Government.” 

This  placed  China  in  the  difficult  position  of  ap- 
pearing to  allow  Mongolia  to  drift,  unless  she  were 
prepared  to  make  war,  even  to  the  extent  of  a con- 
flict with  Russia.  In  view  of  the  financial  situation 
this  latter  course  was  plainly  impossible.  Nor  was 
this  the  worst.  Encouraged  by  the  apparently  suc- 
cessful defection  of  Mongolia  and  probably  influ- 
enced by  the  same  subtle  diplomacy,  Tibet  has  prac- 
tically taken  the  same  attitude  towards  the  Republic 
and  both  territories  seem  at  the  present  time  to  have 
conspired  to  break  up  the  unity  of  the  Five  Families. 

Financial  Affairs.  The  great  weakness,  hith- 
erto, of  the  Republic  has  been  financial  rather  than 
political.  In  other  words  the  political  complications 
might  have  been  overcome  had  the  new  Government 
had  at  its  disposal  money  wherewith  to  discharge  ex- 
isting obligations  and  promote  new  enterprises. 
Soon  after  the  birth  of  the  Republic  it  was  sought 
to  make  a loan  of  $300,000,000  through  a group  of 
bankers  representing  England,  Germany,  France,  the 
United  States,  and  afterwards  Russia  and  Japan. 
This  was  known  as  the  Six  Power  Loan.  It  was  not 
popular  in  China  where  the  cry  was  raised  that  the 
country  was  being  mortgaged  to  the  foreigner.  Nor 


352  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


was  it  much  liked  by  the  foreign  banks  which  had 
had  sad  experience  of  loans  to  such  countries  as  Tur- 
key, Persia,  Morocco,  and  Honduras.  An  attempt 
was  indeed  made  to  raise  the  required  sum  by  an  in- 
ternal national  loan  but,  in  the  case  of  so  poor  a 
country  as  China,  the  idea  was  doomed  to  failure 
from  its  inception.  Then  came  the  attempts  in  the 
fall  of  1912  to  float  a loan  of  $50,000,000  in  London, 
to  be  secured  on  the  free  surplus  of  the  salt  gabelle , 
and  to  be  used  for  the  repayment  of  existing  loans 
and  the  Boxer  indemnity.  This  was  naturally  op- 
posed by  the  Six  Power  Group  and  also  by  the  Brit- 
ish Government.  Nevertheless,  the  loan  was  floated 
in  October  and  one-half  issued.  But  all  attempts 
to  reconcile  the  conflicting  interests  of  prospective 
lenders  proved  abortive  and  by  the  end  of  1912  China 
was  financially  in  a very  serious  situation.  She  was 
in  default  on  the  indemnity ; the  Powers  had  not  yet 
replied  to  the  request  for  an  extension  of  time;  no 
advances  had  been  arranged  from  the  Crisp  loan ; 
moreover,  France  and  Russia  were  working  together 
and  threatening  to  make  China  bankrupt.  The 
danger  of  foreign  intervention  was  never  so  near  as 
at  this  time.  Things  have  not  greatly  improved  per- 
haps since.  President  Wilson  made  it  clear  in  one 
of  his  earliest  statements  that  so  far  as  the  American 
Government  is  concerned  the  Six  Power  Group  is  at 
an  end.  Smoother  water,  however,  was  reached  with 
the  re-election  of  Yuan  Shih-kai  by  the  National 
Assembly.1 

The  Anglo-Chinese  Opium  Agreement.  A dif- 
ficulty of  a lesser  kind,  yet  still  serious,  lay  in  the 
doubt  as  to  whether  China  was  faithfully  fulfilling 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


353 


her  obligations  to  Great  Britain  in  the  reduction  of 
the  opium  crop.  It  was  reported  that  while  in  the 
ports  the  disposal  of  the  imported  opium  had  been 
to  such  an  extent  frustrated  that  there  wras  an  enor- 
mous accumulation  of  stock  in  the  hands  of  the  mer- 
chants, that  a large  opium  crop  had  nevertheless 
been  harvested  throughout  China  and  that  provinces 
which  had  previously  reduced  their  area  of  cultiva- 
tion had  again  planted  the  poppy  on  a large  scale. 
A warning  was  thereupon  issued  to  the  Chinese  Gov- 
ernment, which  had  some  excuse  for  the  reply  that 
the  disturbed  state  of  the  country  during  the  Revo- 
lution and  since  had  led  to  some  districts  disregard- 
ing the  agreement  but  that  the  Peking  authorities 
were  earnestly  endeavoring  to  comply  with  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Treaty.  In  any  case,  we  must  recog- 
nize the  great  progress  made  by  China  in  the  cam- 
paign against  the  drug  and  the  likelihood  that  an 
iniquitous  chapter  in  the  history  of  commerce  will  be 
closed  by  1917. 

Death  of  the  Empress,  Lung  Yu.  On  Feb.  22, 
1913,  the  Empress  Dowager,  Lung  Yu,  passed  away, 
possibly  from  the  effects  of  a dose  of  poison,  but, 
according  to  the  news  given  out,  from  an  acute  mal- 
ady resembling  appendicitis.  She  possessed  much  of 
the  grim  and  masterful  character  of  her  illustrious 
aunt  and  had  always  been  unsympathetic  with  the 
ideals  and  projected  reforms  of  her  husband,  the 
Emperor  Kwang  Hsii.  In  his  last  years  she  had 
played  the  part  of  a spy  in  the  interest  of  Tsi  Thsi. 

The  Electoral  System.  In  the  autumn  of  1912 
the  promulgation  of  the  Electoral  laws  directed  the 
attention  of  the  people  of  China  to  the  fact  that  they 


354  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


were  soon  to  take  part  in  the  election  of  delegates 
to  the  Senate,  House  of  Representatives  and  Pro- 
vincial Assemblies.  The  primaries  were  to  be  held  in 
December,  1912,  and  the  final  elections  in  January. 
The  new  National  Assembly  was  to  be  bi-cameral. 
The  Senate  was  to  consist  of  members  elected  by  the 
Provincial  Assemblies  for  a term  of  six  years,  ten 
senators  to  be  returned  by  each  Provincial  Assembly, 
twenty-seven  by  the  Electoral  colleges  of  Mongolia, 
eight  by  the  Central  Educational  Society  and  six  by 
Chinese  residing  abroad.  One-third  of  the  Senators 
will  retire  every  two  years  and,  to  ensure  this,  the 
various  groups  will  be  divided  by  lot  into  three  classes 
to  serve  respectively  two,  four  and  six  years.  The 
House  of  Representatives  will  be  formed  on  a basis 
of  proportionate  representation,  one  representative 
to  about  eight  hundred  thousand  people.  The  quali- 
fications for  voting  are  said  to  be  not  very  exacting, 
yet  on  account  of  deficiency  of  education  the  number 
of  voters  at  present  is  comparatively  small.  Those 
who  have  been  deprived  of  civil  rights,  who  are  bank- 
rupts, opium  smokers,  insane  or  illiterate  may  neither 
vote  nor  be  elected.  Monks,  priests,  naval  and  mili- 
tary officers,  judges  and  administrative  officials 
generally  are  also  deprived  of  these  privileges. 

The  Opening  of  Parliament.  Both  houses  of 
the  new  Parliament  were  opened  on  April  8.  It  is 
described  as  an  impressive  ceremony.  “ At  10 
o’clock  the  joint  inauguration  of  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Representatives  took  place  in  the  Lower 
Chamber,  while  simultaneously  one  hundred  and  one 
guns  boomed  outside  the  adjacent  city  wall.  Within 
the  House  were  assembled  five  hundred  representa- 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


355 


tives  out  of  a total  membership  of  five  hundred  and 
ninety-six,  and  also  a hundred  and  seventy-seven 
Senators  out  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-four. 
Nearly  all  wore  frock  coats,  and  appeared  fully  to 
realize  the  responsibility  of  their  position.  The 
public  galleries  were  crowded  almost  to  suffocation 
with  Chinese  and  foreign  visitors.  At  11  o’clock  the 
assembled  bands  played  the  National  Anthem  and 
the  members  stood  up  while  the  senior  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  on  behalf  of  both  houses, 
formally  declared  Parliament  open.” 

A Call  to  Prayer.  That  the  momentousness  of 
the  situation  was  not  unrealized  by  those  in  authority 
is  shown  by  the  remarkable  message  adopted  by  the 
Cabinet  and  telegraphed  by  the  Chinese  Government 
to  the  leaders  of  the  Chinese  Churches  in  China  for 
transmission  throughout  the  world.  The  text  is  as 
follows : 

“ Prayer  is  requested  for  the  National  Assembly, 
now  in  session,  for  the  newly  established  Government, 
for  the  President  yet  to  be  elected,  for  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Republic,  that  the  Government  may  be 
recognized  by  the  Powers,  that  peace  may  reign 
within  our  country,  that  strong  virtuous  men  may 
be  elected  to  office,  that  the  Government  may  be  estab- 
lished upon  a strong  foundation.  Upon  receipt  of 
this  telegram  you  are  requested  to  notify  all  churches 
in  your  province  that  April  twenty-seventh  has  been 
set  aside  as  a day  of  prayer  for  the  nation.  Let  all 
take  part.”  Probably  the  issuance  of  such  an  ap- 
peal is  without  precedent  in  the  world’s  history.  It 
ought  to  be  of  good  omen  for  the  future  of  the 
Republic. 


356  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Conclusion.  The  re-election  of  Yuan  Shih-kai, 
the  acceptance  by  the  Chinese  Government  of  the 
Five  Power  Loan  agreement  on  April  28th  are  both 
events  which  may  be  regarded  as  offering  a reason- 
able guarantee  of  the  stability  of  the  new  form  of 
government.  At  this  moment  to  say  more  might  be 
rash. 

The  Emperor  K‘ang  Hsi  is  said  to  have  built  the 
wonderful  marble  junk  in  the  palace  grounds  of 
Peking  with  the  belief  that  it  would  be  in  its  per- 
petuity a sjmibol  of  the  continuance  of  the  Manchu 
dynast}7.  The  question  on  the  lips  of  all  interested 
in  the  future  of  China  must  necessarily  be,  Will  the 
Ship  of  the  Republic  endure?  There  are  various 
views  which  may  be  chronicled  without  the  writer 
venturing  upon  the  risky  role  of  the  prophet.  There 
are,  first  of  all,  the  out  and  out  pessimists.  These 
believe  that  things  have  already  gone  so  far  that 
China’s  day  is  already  over.  Mongolia  and  Tibet, 
they  say  are  already  lost,  and  Manchuria  as  good  as 
lost.  China  is  sold  to  the  money-kings  of  Europe 
and  cannot  even  spend  the  money  she  borrows  except 
for  objects  dictated  by  the  powers.  Russia  and 
France  have  intrigued  so  that  they  hold  China  in 
their  grasp,  while  Japan  is  an  unwilling  witness  of 
Russia’s  gradual  recover}7  of  the  ground  she  lost  in 
1905,  and  Great  Britain  grumblingly  lets  things  go 
as  they  are  going  in  Asia  in  order  to  maintain 
France’s  friendship  in  Europe.  Yuan  Shih-kai  is 
between  the  upper  and  nether  mill-stones  of  Manchu 
hope  of  restoration  and  the  southern  desire  for  more 
radical  reformation.  That  is  one  view. 

Another  is  that  of  the  extreme  reformers,  repre- 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


357 


sented  in  the  Kuomingtang  (i.e.  ‘ Republican  ’ 

party),  men  who  dream  dreams  and  see  visions  of  a 
more  thorough-going  Republicanism  than  has  yet 
been  adventured.  The  party  is  powerful  enough  in 
the  National  Assembly  and  in  the  country  to  give 
plenty  of  trouble.  Can  they  surmount  all  the  prac- 
tical difficulties  in  the  way  of  translating  their 
theories  into  action  so  as  to  supersede  the  present 
order? 

Between  the  two  extremes  is  the  large  body  which 
recognizes  in  Yuan  Shih-kai  the  hope  of  China. 
“ An  opportunist  of  the  Oriental  type,  guided  by  an 
extremely  acute  intelligence  and  sound  judgment  of 
his  fellow-countrymen,”  he  is  still  the  man  of  the 
hour.  He  “ leads  the  Republic,  is  the  Republic,  and 
draws  the  protagonists  of  the  Revolution  towards 
himself  as  if  they  were  so  many  steel  filings.” 

May  we  not  see  in  the  recent  recognition  of  the 
Chinese  Republic  by  the  United  States  of  America 
the  expression  of  a belief  on  the  part  of  a sympathetic 
America  that  the  new  government  has  come  to  stay 
and  will  triumphantly  weather  the  present  storms? 
There  is  much  need  not  only  for  sympathy  but  also 
for  practical  help.  As  Lord  William  Cecil  puts  it : 
“ Let  Western  races  join  together  to  give  them  what 
they  need,  and  in  so  doing  they  will  not  merely  bene- 
fit China,  though  as  China  counts  for  a quarter  of 
the  population  of  this  world,  and  is  nearly  equal  to 
the  number  of  men  who  have  a right  to  call  them- 
selves civilized,  that  were  no  small  merit ; but  they 
will  do  more,  for  they  will  by  common  acts  of  mercy 
and  love  bind  each  to  each  so  that  the  horrid  curse  of 
racial  hatred  shall  not  be  again  able  to  divide  them.”  2 


Beyond  all  conflicting  views  we  feel  in  the  hearts 
of  the  millions  of  awakened  Chinese  and  of  those  who 
sympathize  with  China’s  dream  of  a yet  ampler  des- 
tiny a hope  which  is  inspired  not  merely  by  belief 
in  the  genius  of  this  or  that  statesman,  not  merely  by 
faith  in  this  or  that  theory  of  political  government, 
not  merely  by  dependence  upon  this  or  that  group 
of  foreign  powers  but  by  earnest  seeking  after  the 
way  of  truth  and  righteousness  which  enables  nations 
as  well  as  individuals  to  live  long  in  the  land.  The 
words  of  the  old  Ode  are  still  true  — 

“Good  men  are  bulwarks;  while  the  multitudes 
Are  walls  that  ring  the  land; 

Great  states  are  screens ; 

Each  family  a buttress;  the  pursuit 
Of  righteousness  secures  repose.” 


NOTES 


1.  A telegram  dated  Peking,  May  14,  is  as  follows: 
“ The  first  advance  of  $1,200,000  wTas  paid  to-day  to 
the  Chinese  government  by  representatives  of  the  five- 
power  group  of  financiers  with  whom  China  recently 
negotiated  a loan  for  $125,000,000.” 

2.  “ Changing  China,”  p.  328. 


359 


CHAPTER  XXXI 


THE  PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI 

Rifts  in  the  Republican  lute  — dissatisfaction  with 
the  President  — Yuan  dispenses  with  parliamentary 
forme  — the  capture  of  Tsingtao  — trouble  with 
Japan — the  ultimatum  of  1915  — the  Monarchical 
movement  — Yuan  at  the  altar  of  Heaven  — resig- 
nations among  the  statesmen  — the  Emperor  Hung 
Hsien  — revocation  of  the  monarchy  — rebellion  in 
the  Provinces  — death  of  Yuan  Shih-kai  — estimate 
of  the  first  President  — the  future  of  China. 

The  Chinese  Revolution,  which  had  attained  such 
a bewildering  success,  in  all  probability  beyond  the 
expectations  of  the  leaders  who  had  started  the  move- 
ment, was  swept,  as  we  have  seen,  into  the  enthusiasm 
of  Republicanism  largely  through  the  influence  of 
students  newly  returned  from  abroad.  The  events 
which  followed  were  sufficient  to  cast  some  doubt 
on  the  entire  wisdom  of  the  change,  but  we  have 
noted  already  some  of  the  difficulties  encountered 
and  overcome  by  the  astuteness  of  the  President. 
Seeds,  however,  had  already  been  sown  which  were 
destined  ere  long  to  produce  a precious  crop  of  ills. 

The  inexperience  of  many  of  the  statesmen  of  the 
new  regime  was  soon  displayed : the  futile  railway 
schemes  of  Sun  Wen  may  be  instanced  as  a sufficient 
example.  There  were,  moreover,  men  who  had  em- 
barked upon  the  troubled  sea  of  revolution,  not  from 

360 


PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  361 


any  motives  of  patriotism  but  from  purely  selfish  rea- 
sons, the  desire  for  loot  or  for  the  corrupt  exercise 
of  power.  There  was  also  a swarm  of  ever-ready 
bandits,  eager  to  act  as  the  physical  force  wing  of 
any  intriguing  party  prepared  to  take  advantage  of 
their  courage.  The  White  Wolfs,  actual  and  poten- 
tial, of  the  years  following  the  Revolution  did  not 
lack  for  backing  and  sympathy  among  the  poli- 
ticians. It  is  easy,  under  these  circumstances,  to 
perceive  reasons  for  the  split  which  soon  occurred 
between  Yuan  Shih-kai  and  the  more  hasty  spirits 
who  held  that  Yiian’s  position  was  wholly  due  to 
their  own  support.  The  experienced  and  ruse  states- 
man, well  aware  that  the  Chinese  people  wrere  not  to 
be  transformed  over-night,  was  gradually  making 
progress  in  restoring  peace  to  the  country,  but  the 
plans  he  had  in  mind  were  regarded  as  reactionary 
or  at  least  were  received  with  little  enthusiasm.  The 
hot-heads  wrere  anxious  to  overturn  all  the  past  in 
order  to  win  success  for  their  radical  schemes. 

Hence  the  Revolution  of  1913,  wrherein  many  of 
the  leaders  of  the  earlier  revolution  aligned  them- 
selves against  the  authority  they  had  done  so  much 
to  establish.  The  fighting  centered  around  Shang- 
hai and  Nanking,  where  the  forlorn  hope  of  the  rebels 
was  finally  overcome  and  that  wrhich  they  had  hoped 
would  become  a nation-wide  uprising  became  little 
better  than  a farce.  Sun  Wen  and  Huang  Hsing 
fled  to  Japan,  wThile  the  city  of  Nanking,  the  helpless 
tool  of  their  ambition,  fell  victim  to  as  brutal  and 
savage  a looting,  at  the  hands  of  the  braves  com- 
manded by  Chang  Hsiin,  as  had  ever  stained  Chinese 
history. 


362  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


Despite  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion,  Yuan  still 
found  his  power  far  from  unquestioned  because  of  the 
activities  of  the  Kuomingtang,  or  so-called  Parlia- 
mentary Party.  So,  in  November  of  the  same  year, 
the  President  closed  the  abortive  Parliament  and 
proscribed  the  members  of  the  objectionable  society. 
From  this  time  on  Yuan  ruled  with  the  absolute  sway 
of  an  Emperor.  He  made  the  provinces  once  more 
subservient  to  Peking,  restoring  somewhat  the  old 
system  of  provincial  government  which  had  existed 
under  the  Ch‘ing  emperors.  The  picturesque  title 
of  Tutuh,  which  the  military  governors  had  boasted, 
was  now  replaced  by  the  older  Chiang-chiin.  Taxes 
were  once  more  subject  to  other  than  the  will  of  the 
provinces  who  paid  them,  or  neglected  to  pay  them, 
as  the  case  might  be.  The  President  showed  a sur- 
prising capacity  for  keeping  his  restive  generals  well 
in  hand.  A new  Constitution  was  drawn  up  which, 
while  it  kept  all  power  well  secured  in  the  hands  of 
the  Executive,  yet,  in  the  promulgation  of  the  Tsan- 
cheng-vuan,  or  Council  of  State,  and  the  Li-fa-yuan, 
or  Law-making  Council,  showed  an  evident  wish  to 
employ  the  ability  of  the  best  men  in  the  land  and  to 
develop,  on  conservative  lines,  a true  parliamentary 
body.  In  all  these  decrees  and  acts  of  Yuan  Shih- 
kai  one  finds  difficulty  in  adequately  measuring  his 
sincerity,  but  can  hardly  go  wrong  in  allowing  at 
least  the  credit  due  to  accomplishment. 

The  outbreak  of  the  war  in  Europe  threatened 
danger  to  the  Government  because  of  the  funds  which 
must  be  withdrawn  inevitably  from  their  use  in  the 
development  of  China  and  the  support  of  its  ruler. 
China  had  now  to  look  to  herself  for  money  and  this 


PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  363 


she  did  in  a way  truly  astonishing.  Although  there 
was  in  many  cases  undoubted  pressure,  yet  wealth  to 
such  an  extent  was  collected  by  an  internal  “ loan  ” 
as  to  promise  a future  independence  from  foreign 
capital,  could  peace  be  maintained  and  trade  con- 
tinued. 

Yet  there  was  one  very  direct  way  in  which  China 
felt  the  war.  Germany  had  seized  the  Bay  of  Kiao- 
chao  in  November,  1897,  and  had  devoted  unlimited 
effort  and  wealth  to  making  Tsingtao  a model  city 
and  towards  assuring  for  this  port  much  of  the  fu- 
ture trade  of  China.  In  the  critical  days  of  August, 
1914,  however,  Tsingtao  gave  the  Japanese  their 
chance  of  revenge.  As  Great  Britain’s  ally  she  sent 
an  ultimatum  demanding  the  German  withdrawal 
from  her  Chinese  possessions.  It  was  characteristic 
of  Oriental  finesse  that  this  ultimatum  should  be 
worded  exactly  as  was  the  humiliating  note  which 
Germany  presented  in  1897,  and  on  which  so  much 
light  has  been  shown  by  the  recently-published  mem- 
oirs of  Count  Hayashi.  With  the  overwhelming 
power  at  her  command  and  assisted  by  the  British 
forces  in  the  Far  East,  Japan  soon  invested  and 
captured  Tsingtao. 

China’s  concern,  however,  did  not  end  so  soon. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  siege  the  President  had' 
marked  out  a zone  of  hostilities  to  which  the  Japa- 
nese unfortunately  did  not  restrict  themselves.  Both 
sides  had  taken  advantage  of  Chinese  neutrality,  but 
the  Japanese  went  further,  virtually  seizing  Tsin- 
anfu,  the  capital  of  Shantung,  and  making  themselves 
masters  of  that  important  province.  When  China, 
after  the  fall  of  Tsingtao,  canceled  the  zone  of  hos- 


364  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


tilities  which  was  no  longer  necessary,  Japan  took 
offense  at  what  was  undeniably  China’s  right  and 
presented  at  Peking  a set  of  nineteen  or,  as  they  were 
later  expanded,  twenty-six  demands. 

There  is  yet  much  mystery  about  the  famous  de- 
mands which  were  presented  by  Japan  early  in  1915. 
One  suspicious  fact  seems  clear,  namely,  that  they 
were  submitted  to  China  in  a somewhat  different 
form  from  the  copies  sent  to  Europe  and  America. 
It  is  possible  their  contents  were  dictated  rather  by 
the  necessities  of  a political  crisis  in  Japan,  in  which 
the  Government  was  seeking  a popular  issue  abroad 
to  becloud  certain  unpleasant  issues  at  home.  An- 
other explanation  is  that  Oriental  bargaining,  the 
asking  for  much  more  than  it  was  hoped  to  obtain, 
entered  into  these  demands.  However  that  might 
be,  they  were  regarded  in  China  as  matching,  in  the 
way  they  assaulted  the  sovereign  rights  of  China,  the 
Austrian  note  to  Serbia.  Japan  was  to  be  given 
exclusive  privileges  in  certain  parts  of  the  country 
quite  in  defiance  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Open  Door; 
certain  loans  were  to  be  made  only  from  Japan; 
jurisdiction  was  asked  for  Japanese  police-officers 
on  Chinese  soil ; the  Chinese  army  was  to  be  trained 
by  Japanese  officers, — space  fails  to  enable  us  to 
enumerate  all  the  clauses.  A wave  of  indignation 
swept  over  the  whole  Chinese  nation  such  as  has 
never  before  been  witnessed.  Money  was  poured 
into  the  exchequer  of  a Chinese  Patriotic  League;  a 
boycott  was  organized  throughout  the  land  which 
proved  so  effective  a tax  on  Japanese  trade  that  dip- 
lomatic action  had  to  be  taken  to  lessen  its  intensity. 
Indeed,  the  best  result  of  the  unhappy  affair  was  the 


PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  365 


new  patriotism,  to  which  the  Chinese  have  been  for 
so  many  years  strangers,  and  which  now  bade  fair  to 
teach  them  something  more  than  their  own  local 
interests  and  make  them  realize  their  own  immeasur- 
able but  latent  strength. 

Throughout  the  spring  of  the  year  the  negotia-' 
tions  between  China  and  Japan  proceeded  and  alarm 
was  excited  in  Europe  and  America,  inasmuch  as 
some  of  the  demands  made  by  Japan  seemed  incom- 
patible with  treaty  rights.  A hint  was  needed  from 
Washington  to  the  effect  that  the  United  States 
could  see  no  new  treaty  impairing  her  own  guaran- 
teed rights.  But,  after  all,  the  main  reason  why 
Japan  dropped  her  most  oppressive  demands  was 
the  courage  with  which  Yuan  Shih-kai,  absolutely 
unbacked  by  armed  force  but  fighting  in  a way  to 
arouse  the  admiration  and  the  conscience  of  the 
world,  used  his  well-tried  diplomatic  skill.  Japan 
cut  off  one  demand  after  another  until  she  reached 
the  very  least  she  could  ask,  and  then  only  by  em- 
ploying an  ultimatum  and  threat  of  war  did  she  win 
the  contest  in  which  she  had  strained  severely  the 
good-will  of  her  sincerest  friends.  The  honors  were 
the  President’s.  By  straightforward  dealing  he  had 
done  much  to  restore  the  prestige  of  Chinese  diplo- 
macy. Enemies,  nevertheless,  were  at  work,  poison- 
ing the  minds  of  the  people,  so  that  the  negotiations 
for  which  he  should  have  received  honor  brought  him 
general  execration.  The  mass  of  the  people,  not 
realizing  China’s  helplessness  in  the  hands  of  Japan 
or  else  blinding  themselves  to  it  with  the  old  bravado 
which  had  brought  the  country  into  so  many  past 
misfortunes,  insisted  that  Yuan  had  betrayed  his 


366  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


trust  by  yielding  to  the  ultimatum.  So  they  organ- 
ized a national  “ Shame  Day,”  to  be  kept  for  untold 
generations.  Alas,  but  a year  later  and  this  Shame* 
Day  had  passed  into  the  realm  of  forgotten  things. 

The  Monarchical  movement,  whose  inception  fol- 
lowed swift  behind  the  close  of  the  Japanese  nego- 
tiations, is  much  too  recent  to  lend  itself  to  accurate 
historical  judgment.  The  great  mystery  of  Yuan 
Shih-kai’s  life  is  the  part  he  played  in  this  succession 
of  events  and  the  reasons  he  had  for  starting  it. 
Was  it  just  tyranny  and  selfish  ambition,  as  his  ene- 
mies so  unhesitatingly  declare,  or  was  it  with  a real 
belief  that  this  was  desired  and  was  necessary,  and 
that  China’s  only  hope  of  an  orderly  maintenance 
and  transmission  of  the  government  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  a dynasty,  with  the  crown  passing  from 
father  to  son?  It  is  very  difficult  at  present  to  say; 
for  the  opposition  which  arose  against  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Dragon  Throne  seems  to  have  been  as 
much,  or  almost  as  much,  directed  against  Yiian’s 
eldest  son,  Yuan  Ko-ting,  as  against  the  President 
himself.  Possibly,  as  some  have  suggested,  Yiian’s 
seclusion  kept  from  his  ears  the  real  voice  of  the  peo- 
ple. Yet  here  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  revolt 
which  followed  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy  came 
as  completely  a surprise  to  foreign  residents  who 
had  lived  many  years  in  China  and  who  were  admira- 
bly versed  in  the  Chinese  language  and  opinions. 
Few  doubts  were  expressed  that,  though  the  move- 
ment wras  obviously  engineered  from  Peking,  it  would 
be  continued  to  a successful  conclusion.  The  people 
seemed  indifferent.  While  opposition  was  cautiously 
voiced  by  some,  yet  the  ruling  desire  was  that  busi- 


PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  367 


ness  should  go  on  undisturbed.  In  some  more  con- 
servative quarters  — how  widespread  we  cannot  now 
decide  — secret  joy  was  felt  at  the  dissipation  of  the 
republican  dream.  Many  among  the  conservatives, 
however,  could  not  reconcile  Yiian’s  assuming  the 
seat  of  the  Son  of  Heaven  with  the  existence  of  the 
boy  Manchu,  the  deposed  Emperor  Hsuan  T‘ung. 
It  was  sacrilege. 

The  first  hint  of  the  coming  changes  was  the  Sac- 
rifice to  Heaven  at  the  winter  solstice  of  1914,  when 
the  President  performed  what  had  been  the  function 
of  the  Emperors  from  time  immemorial.  The  Con- 
fucian  ceremonies  in  the  provinces,  which  the  Revo- 
lution had  temporarily  ended,  had  been  fast  reviving; 
the  old  calendar,  holidays  and  festivals  were  taking 
on  more  of  their  former  importance  with  the  passage 
of  each  year;  the  Sacrifice  of  Heaven  capped  these. 
An  interesting  description  of  the  ceremony  is  given 
in  the  North  China  Daily  News , 24  June,  1916,  from 
the  pen  of  Mr.  Frederick  Moore. 

We  quote  as  follows:  “On  the  occasion  of  the 

winter  Solstice,  1914,  honored  by  a long  line  not  only 
of  monarchs,  but  of  dynasties,  the  late  President 
went  in  state  from  his  palace  to  worship  Heaven  at 
the  famous  open  Altar  that  was  formerly  regarded 
as  the  center  of  the  universe.  In  every  respect  the 
ceremony,  with  the  splendor  and  something  of  the 
mysticism  that  surrounded  it  in  early  days,  showed 
(at  least  so  it  would  seem)  that  even  then  Yuan  Shih- 
kai  had  decided  to  set  a crown  upon  his  head.  The 
great  white  altar  was  a brilliant  sight  as  the  sun  rose 
on  that  clear,  cold  December  morning.  At  every 
pillar  of  the  balustrade  stood  a spear-bearer  in  uni- 


368  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


form  and  plumes  like  a modem  European  lancer  in 
parade  colors.  In  the  enclosure  immediately  below 
were  the  musicians  clad  in  robes  of  blue  studded  with 
stars  and  their  instruments  were  those  of  the  days 
when  Confucius  lived.  A troop  of  choir-boys  played 
reed  pipes  with  pheasant  feathers  five  feet  in  length 
swaying  from  them  while  stringed  instruments  and 
bells  wailed  and  echoed  through  the  thick  belt  of  cy- 
press trees.  Just  as  the  sun  rose  the  President’s 
motor-car,  surrounded  by  a troop  of  officers  on  gal- 
loping Mongolian  ponies,  drew  up  at  the  last  gate 
but  one,  whence  the  great  man,  High  Priest  of  China, 
was  borne  in  a sedan  chair  to  the  robing  pavilion. 
From  this  presently  he  emerged,  clad  in  a gown  of 
blue  with  intertwining  dragons  and  other  symbols, 
and  proceeded  to  offer  in  sacrifice  to  Heaven  incense, 
the  hair  and  flesh  of  a calf,  the  finest  silk  and  a tab- 
let signed  and  sealed  by  himself.” 

As  the  year  1915  advanced  there  were  unexplained 
resignations  on  the  part  of  many  Chinese  statesmen. 
Some  plan  wras  in  the  wind  of  which  they  disap- 
proved. What  it  was  China  learned  in  August  when, 
following  upon  the  visit  of  Dr.  Goodnow,  formerly 
political  adviser  to  the  President,  and  almost  coin- 
ciding with  his  memorandum  of  August  20,  the  Chou- 
an-hui  was  formed.  This  was,  being  interpreted,  the 
Society  for  preserving  Peace.  To  “ preserve  the 
peace  ” meant  to  set  up  a monarch,  the  usual  Chinese 
euphemisms  being  employed  for  disguising  an  un- 
pleasant aim.  Of  course  the  Chou-an-hui  was  offi- 
cially rebuked ; great  indignation  was  hurled  at  its 
leaders  by  the  newspapers ; huge  protest  was  made. 
Yet  in  a few  weeks  the  movement  had  progressed  so 


PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  869 


swiftly  that  to  oppose  the  Chou-an-hui  was  to  risk 
death.  In  November  came  the  farcical  election  at 
which,  without  a dissenting  vote,  the  electors  of  the 
whole  nation,  of  radical  Kwangtung  and  of  conserva- 
tive Honan  alike,  chose  Yuan  Shih-kai  their  Em- 
peror. During  these  days  of  balloting  the  authori- 
ties in  many  provinces  knew  so  well  how  that  vague 
process  would  end  that  they  gave  the  schools  a force 
majeure  holiday,  ordered  red  lanterns  displayed  and 
forbade  the  five-striped  flag  of  the  Republic. 

Strangely  enough,  in  many  parts  of  China  far  re- 
moved from  Yunnan,  reports  of  an  imminent  revo- 
lution were  spread  predicting  to  a day  the  outbreak 
which  came  in  Yunnanfu  on  Christmas  Day,  1915. 
The  province  furthest  removed  from  Peking  pro- 
claimed her  independence;  Tsai  Ao,  formerly  a friend 
of  Yiian’s  and  a general  of  much  above  the  ordinary 
ability,  had  assumed  the  command,  together  with  the 
provincial  officials,  appointees  of  Yiian’s  and  among 
the  earliest  to  telegraph  a request  that  he  ascend  the 
throne.  Though  men  of  far  greater  strength  and 
practical  ability  were  connected  with  this  rebellion 
than  with  that  of  1913,  yet  the  seriousness  of  the  dis- 
turbance was  not  at  first  appreciated.  Preparations 
went  on  at  Peking:  on  New  Year’s  Day,  1916,  the 
title  of  the  new  reign  was  announced  as  Hung  Hsien 
or  Overflowing  Pattern.  Seals  of  gold  and  jade 
were  being  made,  robes  got  ready,  stamps  actually 
issued  to  the  post-offices  to  be  used  on  the  enthrone- 
ment of  the  Emperor.  All  proclamations  had  sub- 
stituted “ Hung  Hsien , first  year,"  lettered  in  Ver- 
million, for  the  “ Chung  Hwa  Ming  Kuo,"  or  Central 
Flowrery  Republic,  which  four  years’  use  had  now 


370  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


made  familiar  to  the  people.  Everything  was  in 
readiness  for  the  enthronement,  the  date  of  which  had 
actually  been  placed  for  the  tenth  or  twelfth  of  Feb- 
ruary, when  a sinister  event  halted  proceedings  and 
caused  an  edict  of  postponement.  This  was  the  re- 
volt of  another  province,  Kweichow,  and  the  un- 
looked-for success  of  Yunnanese  troops  in  Szechwan. 

Too  late  Yuan  Shih-kai  perceived  that  a mistake 
had  been  made  and  in  the  weeks  which  followed  he  ap- 
peared undecided  what  course  to  pursue.  The  fight- 
ing in  Szechwan  varied;  but  disaffection  was 
spreading.  There  was  evident  method  in  the  plan  of 
the  rebels  for  a revolution  which  should  reach  grad- 
ually from  the  most  remote  of  the  Eighteen  Provinces 
across  the  hundreds  of  intervening  miles  till  it  should 
seize  upon  Peking  itself.  The  Emperor-elect  at  last 
saw  how  matters  were  tending  and  determined  upon 
what  must  have  been  the  most  painful  step  of  his  .ca- 
reer. This  was  the  cancellation  of  the  monarchy. 

Unfortunately,  the  province  of  Kwangsi  had  just 
added  her  name  to  the  rebel  cause  so  that,  although 
Yuan  had  prepared  the  cancellation  edict  before  he 
heard  of  this  new  misfortune,  the  mandate  came  out 
too  late  and  took  from  him  what  prestige  it  might 
otherwise  have  allowed.  He  was  now  in  retreat  and 
his  foes,  the  more  emboldened,  no  longer  stopped  with 
cancellation  of  the  monarchy  but  demanded  abdica- 
tion. Province  upon  province  followed,  yet  Yuan 
showed  his  strength  by  still  checking  the  movement 
even  when  the  whole  of  central  China  was  frenzied 
with  excitement  and  expecting  independence  at  any 
moment.  The  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtse 
actually  rebelled  only  to  return  to  their  allegiance  a 


PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  371 


few  days  later.  Yuan  was  still  at  bay:  he  had  made 
every  concession  except  abdication;  negotiations  at 
Nanking  had  failed;  the  President,  resolved  to  strug- 
gle to  the  last  and  taking  advantage  of  conflicting 
counsels  in  the  ranks  of  his  opponents,  had  just  or- 
dered his  generals  to  renew  hostilities  when  he  sud- 
denly died.  The  event  took  place  on  June  6 and 
was  attributed  by  the  physicians  in  attendance  to 
uraemia  induced  by  nervous  prostration,  though  there 
were  not  wanting  the  usual  rumors  of  foul  play.  In 
any  case,  as  some  of  Yiian’s  best  friends  have  de- 
clared, at  this  juncture  his  death  probably  served  the 
cause  of  China  well  and  Li  Yuan-hung  in  assuming 
the  duties  of  Acting-President  found  the  situation 
already  a little  less  critical. 

Of  course,  in  a land  so  precedent-ridden  as  China, 
the  death  of  the  first  President  caused  some  perplex- 
ity to  the  official  mind.  Wires  were  sent  to  the  Min- 
ister at  Washington  for  information  as  to  the  proper 
etiquette  and,  by  a strange  irony  of  fate,  this  man, 
so  essentially  Chinese,  was  honored  in  the  army  and 
police  by  the  wearing  of  black  armlets,  though  black 
has  no  suggestion  of  mourning  to  the  Chinese.  But, 
in  striking  contrast  to  this  bit  of  foreign  innovation, 
there  was  a memorial  service  in  the  Temple  of  Agri- 
culture of  which  the  following  account,  from  the 
North  China  Daily  News  of  June  24,  1916,  is  worth 
quotation : 

“ The  Temple  is  one  of  the  lesser  ‘ sights  ’ of  the 
capital,  but  a very  charming  spot  none  the  less.  Its 
main  hall,  the  Tai  Sui  Tien,  was,  according  to  the 
latest  reports,  to  be  the  scene  of  the  major  portion 
of  the  service.  Anybody  acquainted  with  the 


372  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 


grounds  can  imagine  the  scene.  In  the  center  stood 
an  altar  flanked  on  either  side  by  a dais  on  which 
choirs  of  Lamas  and  Taoist  priests  chanted  solemnly. 
Sacrificial  bowls  of  fruit  and  food,  pewter  vases  and 
candlesticks,  great  copper  incense-burners,  tapes- 
tries beautifully  worked  and  mellowed  with  age,  were 
the  chief  ornaments.  Each  day  the  service  began  at 
seven  in  the  morning  and  lasted  till  one  o’clock  and 
as  it  proceeded  the  grounds  outside  were  filled  with  a 
large  concourse  of  people, — the  gentry  and  mer- 
chants of  Peking,  some  dressed  in  official  clothes,  oth- 
ers in  gowns  of  dark  blue.  In  effective  contrast  with 
this  somber  coloring  rose  monumental  arches  or  pai- 
lous , wreathed  in  white,  and  above  the  whole  was  the 
cloudless  summer  sky,  the  sun’s  rays  striking  spear- 
like through  the  gloom  of  the  pines.” 

Years  will  be  required  to  pass  ere  the  true  worth 
and  character  of  Yuan  Shih-kai  can  be  appraised. 
Like  the  great  Empress-Dowager,  he  can  be  accused 
of  acts  which,  according  to  western  standards,  are 
indefensible  but  which  have  more  than  the  shadow  of 
an  excuse  in  the  ancient  palace  halls  of  Peking.  As 
in  the  case  of  his  great  predecessor,  it  is  not  easy  as 
3Tet  to  tell  whether  his  ability  was,  after  all,  con- 
structive or  destructive.  Did  he  hold  together  and 
conserve  the  nation  at  a moment  of  possible  disrup- 
tion or  did  he  take  a difficult  heritage  and  hasten  it 
only  the  more  rapidly  toward  ruin?  The  hatred 
which  he  inspired  among  his  own  people  in  the  later 
days  of  his  life  makes  it  more  than  usually  hard  to 
answer  these  questions.  It  is,  in  any  case,  pitiful  to 
remember  that  the  death  of  this  man,  who  had  given 
his  life  to  facing  the  perils  of  his  country,  should 


PRESIDENCY  OF  YUAN  SHIH-KAI  373 


arouse  nothing  but  joy  in  the  hearts  of  the  majority 
of  the  people.  Yuan  Shih-kai  is  dead  and,  by  a large 
part  of  his  race,  unmourned,  but  we  may  hazard  the 
belief  that  his  fame  will  go  down  in  history  as  the 
tragic  glory  of  a second  Mirabeau  whose  greatness 
calls  for  coming  generations  to  recognize. 

What  of  the  future?  There  are  many  problems 
which  China  must  solve  before  she  can  enjoy  the 
blessings  of  republican  government  as  we  understand 
them.  She  must  have  better  communications,  more 
widely-extended  education,  security  from  the  grind- 
ing poverty  which  makes  vast  multitudes  indifferent 
to  everything  save  the  winning  of  the  day’s  morsel  of 
necessary  food.  She  must  learn  to  control  the  army 
and  raise  up  some  Jason  to  curb  the  mailed  warriors 
which  have  followed  upon  the  sowing  of  the  Dragon’s 
teeth.  She  must  teach  her  officials  honesty  and  her 
people  patriotism.  Above  all  she  must  possess  her 
soul  in  patience  and  not  expect  a fully  developed  re- 
publicanism to  spring  full-grown  like  Athene  from 
the  brow  of  Zeus. 

Yet  there  is  no  call  for  pessimism.  One  needs,  to 
judge  the  potentialities  of  China  accurately,  to  leave 
the  cities  with  their  poverty  and  degradation,  to  for- 
get the  rabid  talk  of  politicians,  and  to  go  into  the 
great  open  country  where  the  many  millions  plow 
and  sow  and  harvest,  caring  not  a whit  whether  Em- 
peror or  President  govern  so  long  as  Heaven  grant 
peace  and  fine  weather.  On  plains,  seemingly  as 
spacious  as  the  sky  itself,  you  will  hear  the  boy^ 
singing  while  they  ride  the  buffalo  home  at  dusk  or 
the  peasants  singing  as  they  work  in  the  glow  of  the 
full  moon.  Then  you  will  realize  the  greatness  of 


374  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF  CHINA 

the  honest  industry  which  goes  forward  day  by  day, 
promising  China  long  and  sturdy  life  when  the  wor- 
ries as  to  her  future  and  her  fate  have  been  locked 
away  in  old  books  and  forgotten. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  A 


1.  Age  of  Fable. 

P an  Ku 

The  Heaven  Kings  (12  brothers). 
The  Earth  Kings  (11  brothers). 
The  Man  Kings  (9  brothers). 

The  Ten  Periods  of  Ascent. 

2.  The  Age  of  the  Five  Rulers. 


Fu  Hsi 

B.  C. 

2852 

Shen  Nung 

B.  C. 

2737 

Huang  Ti 

B.  C. 

2697 

Shao  Hao 

B.  C. 

2597 

Chwan  Hii 

B.  C. 

2513 

Ti  Kuh 

B.  C. 

2435 

Ti  Chih 

B.  C. 

2365 

Yao 

B.  C. 

2356 

Shun 

B.  C. 

2255 

Hsia  Dynasty 

Yu 

B.  C. 

2205 

K‘i 

B.  C. 

2197 

T‘ai  K‘ang 

B.  C. 

2188 

Chung  K'ang 

B.  C. 

2159 

Siang  (and  interregnum) 

B.  C. 

2146 

Shao  K‘ang 

B.  C. 

2079 

Ch‘u 

B.  C. 

2057 

Hwai 

B.  C. 

o 

o 

G* 

Mang 

B.  C. 

2014 

Sieh 

B.  C. 

1996 

Pu  Kiang 

B.  C. 

1980 

Kiung 

B.  C. 

1921 

Kin 

B.  C. 

1900 

377 


378 


APPENDICES 


K‘ung  Kia 

B.  C. 

1879 

Kao 

B.  C. 

18-18 

Fa 

B.  C. 

1837 

Chieh  Kwei 

B.  C. 

1818 

Shang  ( and  Yin)  Dynasty. 

Tang 

B.  C. 

1766 

T‘ai  Kia 

B.  C. 

1753 

Yu  Ting 

B.  C. 

1720 

T‘ai  Keng 

B.  C. 

1691 

Siao  Kia 

B.  C. 

1666 

Yung  Ki 

B.  C. 

1649 

T‘ai  Mou 

B.  C. 

1637 

Chung  Ting 

B.  C. 

1562 

Wai  Jen 

B.  C. 

1549 

Ho  Tan  Kia 

B.  C. 

1534 

Tsu  Yih 

B.  C. 

1525 

Tsu  Sin 

B.  C. 

1506 

Yu  Kia 

B.  C. 

1490 

Tsu  Ting 

B.  C. 

1465 

Nan  Keng 

B.  C. 

1433 

Yang  Kia 

B.  C. 

1408 

P’an  Keng  (Yin  Dynasty) 

B.  C. 

1401 

Siao  Sin 

B.  C. 

1373 

Siao  Yih 

B.  C. 

1352 

Wu  Ting 

B.  C. 

1324 

Tsu  Keng 

B.  C. 

1265 

Tsu  Kia 

B.  C. 

1258 

Lin  Sin 

B.  C. 

1225 

Keng  Ting 

B.  C. 

1219 

Wu  Yih 

B.  C. 

1198 

T‘ai  Ting 

B.  C. 

1194 

Ti  Yih 

B.C. 

1191 

Chou  Hsin 

B.  C. 

1154 

Chou  Dynasty. 

Wu  Wang 

B.  C. 

1122 

Cheng  Wang 

B.C. 

1115 

APPENDICES 


379 


K'ang  Wang 

B.  C. 

1078 

Chao  Wang 

B.  C. 

1052 

Mu  Wang 

B.  C. 

1001 

Rung  Wang 

B.  C. 

946 

I Wang 

B.  C. 

934 

Hsiao  Wang 

B.  C. 

909 

I Wang 

B.  C. 

894 

Li  Wang 

B.  C. 

878 

Hsiian  Wang 

B.  C. 

827 

Yu  Wang 

B.  C. 

781 

P‘ing  Wang 

B.  C. 

770 

Huan  Wang 

B.  C. 

719 

Chuang  Wang 

B.  C. 

696 

Hi  Wang 

B.  C. 

681 

Hui  Wang 

B.  C. 

676 

Siang  Wang 

B.  C. 

651 

K'ing  Wang 

B.  C. 

618 

K'uang  Wang 

B.  C. 

612 

Ting  Wang 

B.  C. 

606 

Kien  Wang 

B.  C. 

585 

Ling  Wang 

B.  C. 

571 

King  Wang 

B.  C. 

544 

King  Wang 

B.  C. 

519 

Yuan  Wang 

B.  C. 

475 

Cheng  Ting  Wang 

B.  C. 

468 

K‘ao  Wang 

B.  C. 

440 

Wei  Lieh  Wang 

B.  C. 

425 

An  Wang 

B.  C. 

401 

Lieh  Wang 

B.  C. 

375 

Hsien  Wang 

B.  C. 

368 

Shen  Tsing  Wang 

B.  C. 

320 

Nan  Wang 

B.  C. 

314 

Tung  Chou  Kim 

B.  C. 

255 

Ch‘in  Dynasty. 

Cho  Siang  Wang 

B.  C. 

255 

Hsiao  Wen  Wang 

B.  C. 

250 

380 


APPENDICES 


Chuan  Hsiang  Wang 

B.  C. 

24-9 

Shih  Huang  Ti 

B.  C. 

221 

Urh  Shih  Huang  Ti 

B.  C. 

209 

7.  Han  Dynasty. 

Kao  Tsu 

B.  C. 

206 

Hui  Ti 

B.  C. 

194 

Lii  Hou 

B.  C. 

187 

Wen  Ti 

B.  C. 

179 

King  Ti 

B.  C. 

156 

Wu  Ti 

B.  C. 

140 

Chao  Ti 

B.  C. 

86 

Suan  Ti 

B.  C. 

73 

Yuan  Ti 

B.  C. 

48 

Ch'eng  Ti 

B.  C. 

32 

Ngai  Ti 

B.  C. 

6 

P mg  Ti 

A.  D. 

1 

Ju  Tsu  Ying 

A.  D. 

6 

Wang  Mang 

A.  D. 

9 

Hwai  Yang  Wang 

A.  D. 

23 

Kuang  Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

25 

Ming  Ti 

A.  D. 

58 

Chang  Ti 

A.  D. 

76 

Ho  Ti 

A.  D. 

89 

Shang  Ti 

A.  D. 

106 

An  Ti 

A.  D. 

107 

Shun  Ti 

A.  D. 

126 

Ch'ung  Ti 

A.  D. 

145 

Chih  Ti 

A.  D. 

146 

Huan  Ti 

A.  D. 

147 

Ling  Ti 

A.  D. 

168 

Hien  Ti 

A.  D. 

190 

8.  Period  of  the  Three  Kingdoms. 

(1)  Minor  Han. 

Chao  Lieh  Ti 

A.  D. 

221 

Hou  Chu 

A.  D. 

223 

(2)  Wei. 

APPENDICES 


381 


Wen  Ti 

A.  D. 

220 

Ming  Ti 

A.  D. 

227 

Fei  Ti 

A.  D. 

240 

Shao  Ti 

A.  D. 

254 

Yiian  Ti 

A.  D. 

260 

(3)  Wu. 

Ta  Ti 

A.  D. 

229 

Fei  Ti 

A.  D. 

252 

King  Ti 

A.  D. 

259 

Mo  Ti 

A.  D. 

264 

Western  Tsin  Dynasty. 

Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

265 

Hui  Ti 

A.  D. 

290 

Hwai  Ti 

A.  D. 

307 

Min  Ti 

A.  D. 

313 

K Eastern  Tsin  Dynasty. 

Yiian  Ti 

A.  D. 

317 

Ming  Ti 

A.  D. 

323 

Ch'eng  Ti 

A.  D. 

326 

K'ang  Ti 

A.  D. 

343 

Mu  Ti 

A.  D. 

345 

Ngai  Ti 

A.  D. 

362 

Ti  Yih 

A.  D. 

366 

Kien  Wen  Ti 

A.  D. 

371 

Hsiao  Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

373 

An  Ti 

A.  D. 

397 

Kung  Ti 

A.  D. 

419 

Earlier  Sung  Dynasty. 

Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

420 

Shao  Ti 

A.  D. 

420 

Ying  Yang  Wang 

A.  D. 

423 

Wen  Ti 

A.  D. 

424 

Hsiao  Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

454 

Fei  Ti 

A.  D. 

465 

Ming  Ti 

A.  D. 

465 

Ts‘ang  Wu  Wang 

A.  D. 

473 

382 


APPENDICES 


473 

477 


12. 


13. 


14. 


15. 


16. 


Chu  Li 

A.  D. 

Shun  Ti 

A.  D. 

Clii  Dynasty 
Kao  Ti 

A.  D. 

Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

Yu  Lin  Wang 

A.  D. 

Hai  Ling  Wang 

A.  D. 

Ming  Ti 

A.  D. 

Tung  Hwen  Hou 

A.  D. 

Ho  Ti 

A.  D. 

Liang  Dynasty 
Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

Kien  Wen  Ti 

A.  D. 

Yu  Chang  Wang 

A.  D. 

Yuan  Ti 

A.  D. 

Cheng  Yang  Hou 

A.  D. 

King  Ti 

A.  D. 

CD en  Dynasty 
Wu  Ti 

A.  D. 

Wen  Ti 

A.  D. 

Lin  Hai  Wang 

A.  D. 

Siian  Ti 

A.  D. 

Hou  Chu 

A.  D. 

Sui  Dynasty 
Kao  Tsu 

A.  D. 

Yang  Ti 

A.  D. 

Kung  Ti  Yu 

A.  D. 

Kung  Ti  T’ung 

A.  D. 

Dang  Dynasty 
Kao  Tsu 

A.  D. 

T‘ai  Tsung 

A.  D. 

Kao  Tsung 

A.  D. 

Chung  Tsung 

A.  D. 

Jui  Tsung 

A.  D. 

Wu  Hou 

A.  D. 

479 

483 

494 

494 

494 

499 

501 

502 

550 

551 

552 
555 
555 

557 

560 

567 

569 

583 

589 

605 

617 

618 

618 

627 

650 

684 

684 

684 


APPENDICES 


383 


Chung  Tsung  (resumed) 

A.  D. 

705 

Jui  Tsung 

A.  D. 

710 

Yuan  Tsung 

A.  D. 

713 

Su  Tsung 

A.  D. 

756 

Tai  Tsung 

A.  D. 

763 

Te  Tsung 

A.  D. 

780 

Shun  Tsung 

A.  D. 

805 

Hsien  Tsung 

A.  D. 

806 

Mu  Tsung 

A.  D. 

821 

King  Tsung 

A.  D. 

825 

Wen  Tsung 

A.  D. 

827 

Wu  Tsung 

A.  D. 

841 

Siian  Tsung 

A.  D. 

847 

I Tsung 

A.  D. 

860 

Hi  Tsung 

A.  D. 

874 

Chao  Tsung 

A.  D. 

889 

Chao  Siian  Ti 

A.  D. 

905 

17.  Five  Little  Dynasties 
(1)  Later  Liang 


T‘ai  Tsu 

A.  D. 

907 

Mo  Ti 

A.  D. 

915 

(2)  Later  Dang 

Chuang  Tsung 

A.  D. 

923 

Ming  Tsung 

A.  D. 

926 

Min  Ti 

A.  D. 

934 

Fei  Ti 

A.  D. 

934 

(3)  Later  Tsin 

Kao  Tsu 

A.  D. 

936 

T‘si  Wang 

A.  D. 

943 

(4)  Later  Han 

Kao  Tsu 

A.  D. 

947 

Yin  Ti 

A.  D. 

948 

(5)  Later  Chou 

T‘ai  Tsung 

A.  D. 

951 

Shih  Tsung 

A.  D. 

954 

384 


APPENDICES 


Rung  Ti 

A.  D. 

960 

Sung  Dynasty 
T‘ai  Tsu 

A.  D. 

960 

T‘ai  Tsung 

A.  D. 

976 

Chen  Tsung 

A.  D. 

998 

Jen  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1023 

Ying  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1064 

Chen  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1068 

Che  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1086 

Hui  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1101 

K‘in  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1126 

(Southern  Sung) 


Kao  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1127 

Hsiao  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1163 

Kuang  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1190 

Ning  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1195 

Li  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1225 

Tu  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1265 

Kung  Ti 

A.  D. 

1275 

Tuan  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1276 

Ti  Ping 

A.  D. 

1278 

Yuan  Dynasty 

Shih  Tsu  (Kublai  Khan) 

A.  D. 

1260 

Wu  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1295 

Ch’eng  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1308 

Jen  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1312 

Ying  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1321 

Tai  Ting  Ti 

A.  D. 

1324 

Ming  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1329 

Wen  Ti 

A.  D. 

1330 

Shun  Ti 

A.  D. 

1333 

Ming  Dynasty 

T‘ai  Tsu 

A.  D. 

1368 

Hui  Ti 

A.  D. 

1399 

Ch'eng  Tsu 

A.  D. 

1403 

APPENDICES 


385 


Jen  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1425 

Siian  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1426 

Ying  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1436 

Tai  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1450 

King  Ti 

A.  D. 

1450 

Ying  Tsung  (resumed) 

A.  D. 

1457 

Hsien  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1465 

Hsiao  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1488 

Wu  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1506 

Shih  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1522 

Mu  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1567 

Shen  Tsung  (Wan  Li) 

A.  D. 

1573 

Kuang  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1620 

Hi  Tsung 

A.  D. 

1621 

Chuang  Lieh  Ti 

A.  D. 

1628 

Ch'ing  Dynasty.  (Reign  Titles). 

Shun  Chih 

A.  D. 

1644 

K'ang  Hsi 

A.  D. 

1662 

Yung  Cheng 

A.  D. 

1722 

Ch'ien  Lung 

A.  D. 

1736 

Chia  Ch'ing 

A.  D. 

1796 

Tao  Kuang 

A.  D. 

1820 

Hsien  Feng 

A.  D. 

1850 

T'ung  Chih 

A.  D. 

1861 

Kuang  Hsii 

A.  D. 

1875 

Hsiian  T'ung 

A.  D. 

1908 

The  Chinese  Republic. 
Yuan  Shih-kai 

A.  D. 

1912 

Li  Yuan-hung 

A.  D. 

1916. 

APPENDIX  B 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Out  of  the  many  hundreds  of  interesting  books  on 
China,  the  following  may,  for  various  reasons,  be  espe- 
cially recommended: 

HISTORICAL 

“ The  Middle  Kingdom,”  S.  Wells  Williams. 

“ Chine,”  par  G.  Pauthier. 

E.  Chavannes’  Translation  of  Ssu-ma  Ch'ien’s  History 
(in  French). 

“ Melanges  Asiatiques  ” and  “ Nouveaux  Melanges,”  par 
Abel  Remusat. 

“ The  Ancient  History  of  China,”  Professor  Fr.  Hirth. 

“ China  ” (Story  of  the  Nations’  Series),  Sir  R.  K. 
Douglas. 

“Early  Chinese  History;  Are  the  Chinese  Classics 
forged?  ” H.  J.  Allen. 

“ A Chinese  Biographical  Dictionary,”  H.  A.  Giles. 

“ The  Chinese  Reader’s  Manual,”  W.  F.  Mayers. 

“ Textes  d’auteurs  Grecs  et  Latins  relatifs  a l’extreme- 
orient,”  par  Georges  Coedes. 

“ Wang  An-shih  and  his  Reforms,”  A.  J.  Ivanoff.  (In 
Russian.) 

“ A Short  History  of  China,”  D.  C.  Boulger. 

“ Imperial  History  of  China,”  Rev.  J.  McGowan. 

“ A Sketch  of  Chinese  History,”  Dr.  F.  L.  Pott. 

“ Memoirs  and  Annals  of  the  Court  of  Peking,”  Back- 
house and  Bland. 


386 


APPENDICES  387 

LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

‘ The  Language  and  Literature  of  China/’  Sir  R.  K. 
Douglas. 

‘ The  Chinese  Classics/’  translated  by  Professor  Legge. 
‘ Geschichte  der  Chinesischen  Litteratur/’  Wilh.  Grube. 

‘ A History  of  Chinese  Literature/’  H.  A.  Giles. 

‘ Chinese  Poems/’  translated  by  Charles  Budd. 

‘ Chinese  Lyrics/’  Helen  Waddell. 

* The  Chinese  Language  and  how  to  learn  it,”  Sir  Walter 
Hillier. 

‘ Early  Chinese  Writing/’  F.  H.  Chalfant. 

‘ Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Chinese  characters,”  J. 
EdJkins. 

‘ The  Structure  of  Chinese  characters,”  J.  Chalmers. 

‘ The  Lore  of  Cathay,”  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin. 

‘ Buddhist  Kingdoms  of  the  Western  World,”  S.  Beal. 

‘ The  Travels  of  Fa  Hsien,”  translated  by  Professor 
Legge. 

* Chwang  Tzu,”  F.  H.  Balfour. 

‘ Chwang  Tzu,  Mj^stic,  Moralist  and  Reformer,”  H.  A. 
Giles. 

* Musings  of  a Chinese  Mystic,”  Lionel  Giles. 

* The  Sayings  of  Lao  Tzu,”  Lionel  Giles. 

RELIGION 

‘ The  Religious  System  of  China,”  DeGroot. 

‘ The  Religions  of  China,”  J.  Legge. 

‘ Buddhism  as  a Religion,”  H.  Hackmann. 

‘ Religion  in  China,”  J.  Edkins. 

‘ China  and  Religion,”  E.  H.  Parker. 

‘ Confucianism  and  Taoism,”  Sir  R.  K.  Douglas. 

‘ Chinese  Buddhism,”  J.  Edkins. 

‘ Buddhism  in  China,”  S.  Beal. 

‘ Christianity  in  China  ” (the  Nestorian  Tablet),  J. 
Legge. 

‘ Rex  Christus,”  A.  H.  Smith. 


388 


APPENDICES 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  EXPLORATION 


“ The  Chinese  Empire/’  the  Abbe  Hue. 

“ The  Ruins  of  Desert  Cathay/’  Sir  Marc  Aurel  Stein. 

“ Through  the  Yangtse  Gorges/’  A.  J.  Little. 

“ The  Travels  of  Marco  Polo/’  Yule  and  Cordier. 

“ Through  Hidden  Shensi/’  Francis  Nichols. 

“ From  Peking  to  Mandalay/’  R.  F.  Johnston. 

“ In  Fobidden  China/’  the  Vicomte  d’Ollone. 

“ A Wayfarer  in  China/’  Elizabeth  Kendall. 

“ The  Eighteen  Capitals  of  China/’  W.  E.  Geil. 

“ The  Great  Wall  of  China,”  W.  E.  Geil. 

“ A Yankee  on  the  Yangtse  Kiang,”  W.  E.  Geil. 

“ Travels  and  Researches  in  Western  China,”  E.  C. 
Baber. 

MODERN  CHINA 

“ The  Real  Chinese  Question,”  Chester  Holcombe. 

“ Changing  China,”  the  Rev.  Lord  William  Gascoigne- 
Cecil. 

“ New  Forces  in  Old  China,”  A.  J.  Brown. 

“ Problems  of  the  Far  East,”  Lord  Curzon. 

“ The  New  Far  East,”  A.  Diosv. 

“ China  in  Transformation,”  A.  R.  Colquhoun. 

“ The  Awakening  of  China,”  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin. 

“ China  and  America  To-day,”  A.  H.  Smith. 

“ China’s  Only  Hope,”  the  Viceroy  Chang  Chih-tung. 

“ With  the  Empress-Dowager,”  Katherine  A.  Carl. 

“ Court  Life  in  China,”  Isaac  Taylor  Headland. 

“ China  under  the  Empress-Dowager,”  Backhouse  and 
Bland. 

“ Letters  from  China,”  Mrs.  Conger. 

“ These  from  the  Land  of  Sinim,”  Sir  Robert  Hart. 

“ Passing  of  the  Dragon,”  J.  C.  Kevte. 

“ Memoirs  of  Li  Hung-chang,”  edited  by  W.  F.  Mannix. 
“ Two  Years  in  the  Forbidden  City,”  the  Princess  Der- 
ling. 


APPENDICES 


389 


“ The  New  China/’  Henri  Borel. 

“ Lion  and  Dragon  in  Northern  China,”  R.  F.  Johnston. 
“ Notable  Women  in  Modern  China,”  Margaret  E.  Bur- 
ton. 

“ The  Flowery  Republic,”  Frederick  McCormick. 

“ Recent  Events  and  Present  Policies  in  China,”  J.  O. 
P.  Bland. 

“ Present  Day  China,”  Gardner  L.  Harding. 

GENERAL 

“ China,  its  History,  Arts  and  Literature,”  Captain 
Brinkley. 

“ A Cycle  of  Cathay,”  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin. 

“ The  Chinese,  their  Education,  Philosophy  and  Let- 
ters,” Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin. 

“ China,  New  and  Old,”  Dr.  A.  E.  Moule. 

“ Half  a Century  in  China,”  Dr.  A.  E.  Moule. 

“ The  Chinese  People,”  Dr.  A.  E.  Moule. 

“ The  Chinese  at  Home,”  J.  Dver  Ball. 

“ Five  Thousand  Years  of  John  Chinaman,”  J.  Dyer 
Ball. 

“ Chinese  Characteristics,”  A.  H.  Smith. 

“ Village  Life  in  China,”  A.  H.  Smith. 

“ The  Chinese,”  Sir  John  Davis. 

“ China,  its  History,  Diplomacy  and  Commerce,”  E.  H. 
Parker. 

“ Gleanings  of  Fifty  Years  in  China,”  A.  J.  Little. 

“ A String  of  Chinese  Peach-stones,”  W.  A.  Cornaby. 

“ A Corner  of  Cathay,”  Adele  M.  Field. 

“ China  and  the  Chinese,”  H.  A.  Giles. 

“ The  Chinese,”  J.  S.  Thomson. 

“ China,  the  Long-lived  Empire,”  Eliza  Scidmore. 

“ The  Civilization  of  China,”  H.  A.  Giles. 


' 


INDEX 


INDEX 


A 

A-Fong  Kung  (palace),  77. 
Aggression  (European), 
316. 

Ahluta  (Empress),  302. 
Alikwan  (general),  229. 
Ama  Wang  (Regent),  187. 
America  (Relations  with), 
297. 

Amherst  (Lord),  248f. 
Amiot  (Pere),  235,  249. 
d’ Andrade  (Portuguese), 

161. 

An  Ki-sheng  (Taoist  patri- 
arch), 79. 

Anti-dynastic  movements, 
274,  338. 

“Arrow”  affair,  283P 
Art  (Chinese),  4,  122,  140. 
Ascent  (Periods  of),  21. 
Attiret  (Pere),  224,  289. 
Audience  question,  302. 
August  Periods,  20. 
Awakening  of  China,  332. 

B 

Bayan  (general),  145. 
Blagovestchensk  massacre, 
329- 

Boards  (The  Six),  47,  194. 
Bodhidharma  (patriarch), 
107. 

Book  of  Han,  93. 

Boxer  Rebellion,  324k 
Bowring  (Sir  John),  284. 


Browning  (“The  Ring  and 
the  Book  ”),  202. 

Bruce  (Sir  Frederick),  286, 
293- 

Buddhism  (Introduction 

of),  94. 

Burlinghame  (Anson),  296, 
304. 

Burmah  (War  with),  228. 

Burning  of  the  Books,  77. 

C 

Calamities  (national),  244. 

California  (Immigration 

to),  297. 

Cambodia,  310. 

Canning  (Lord),  285. 

Canton,  232,  260,  269,  284. 

Carp  (Significance  of),  72. 

Carpini  (Franciscan),  144. 

Cassini  (Convention),  316. 

Castiglioni  (Jesuit),  224, 
289. 

Cathay,  9, 

Central  Asia  (Wars  in), 
225,  300. 

Chang  Chih-ho  (philoso- 
pher), 121. 

Chang  Chih-tung  (vice- 
roy), 308,  317. 

Chang  Chiu-ling  (states- 
man), 1 16. 

Chang  Fei  (soldier),  96. 

Chang  K‘ien  (general),  86. 

Chang  Kwang-sze  (gen- 
eral), 225. 


394 


INDEX 


Chang  Kwei  (soldier),  134. 

Chang  Pau  (pirate),  246. 

Chang  Shih-chieh  (gen- 
eral), 135. 

Chang-shun  (soldier),  134. 

Chang  Sun  (Empress),  113. 

Chang  Tao-ling  (Taoist), 
60. 

Changtu  (capital),  132,  133. 

Chang  Yih  (pirate),  246. 

Chao  (general),  226. 

Chao  Kao  (eunuch),  81. 

Chao  Wang  (Emperor),  48. 

Che  Tsung  (Emperor),  13 1. 

Chehkiang  (province),  11. 

Ch‘eng  T‘ang  (Emperor), 
34,  36f- 

Cheng  Wang  (Emperor), 
47  f- 

Ch‘i  (state),  70. 

Ch‘i  (dynasty),  101. 

Chia  Ch‘ing  (Emperor), 
240ft. 

Chia  I (poet),  91. 

Chiang  Hsiang  Wang  (Em- 
peror), 73. 

Chieh  (Emperor),  34b 

Ch'ien  Lung  (Emperor), 
140,  223ft. 

Chifu  (convention),  306. 

Chihli  (province),  11. 

Ch‘in  (State),  66,  7of. 

Ch'in  (dynasty),  73ft*. 

Ch‘in  Shih  Huang  Ti  (Em- 
peror), 60,  74ft,  177. 

“ China’s  Only  Hope,”  317. 

Ching  Chih-lung  (pirate), 
190. 

Ching  Ch‘ing-kung  (pi- 
rate), 190. 

Chou  (Duke  of),  44 f. 

Chou  (dynasty),  42 ff,  55ft. 

Chou-an-hui  (Society  for 
preserving  Peace),  368. 

Chou  Hsin  (Emperor),  3 yi. 


Chou  Li  (Book  of  Chou), 
46. 

Chow  Han  (agitator),  312. 
Christian  Missions  (Nes- 
torian),  111;  (Francis- 
can), 150;  (Jesuit),  163; 
(Modern),  249. 

Ch‘u  (State),  69,  70. 
Chu-ko  Liang  (statesman), 

96- 

Chu  Yuan  (minister),  70. 
Chu  Yiian-chang  (Em- 
peror), 150,  155! 

Chu  Yiin-wen  (Ming  Em- 
peror), 158. 

Chuang  (Prince  of  Ch‘u), 
57- 

Ch‘un  (Prince),  308. 

Ch‘un  Tsiu  (classic),  53, 

65. 

Ch'ung-hou  (diplomat), 
299,  308. 

Chung  Hwa  (Name  of 
China),  9. 

Chung  K‘ang  (Emperor), 
34- 

Chung  Kuo  (Name  of 
China),  9. 

Chung  Tsung  (Emperor), 
XI5* 

Chung  Wang  (soldier), 
279. 

Chung  Yung  (classic),  66. 
Chwang  Tzu  (philosopher), 
59f,  69L 

Classics  (Confucian),  64f, 
112. 

Cochin  China,  310. 
Columbus  (voyage  of),  3, 
144- 

Commerce  (under  T‘angs), 
123. 

Confucius,  6iff. 

Courbet  (admiral),  311. 
Coxinga  (pirate),  61,  190. 


INDEX 


395 


Crisp  (loan),  351. 


Cushing 

(Caleb),  268. 

D 

Dardsha 

(Eleuth 

chief), 

225. 

Dayatsi 

(Eleuth 

chief), 

225. 

De  Quincy  (quoted),  227L 

Detring  (Mr.),  314. 

Drama  (in  China),  1 5 1 f . 

“ Dream  of  the  Red  Cham- 
ber ” (novel),  215. 

Dutch  (relations),  192,  234. 

E 

Earth  (kings),  20. 

East  India  Company,  248, 
260. 

Eastern  Han  (dynasty),  93. 

Edicts  (of  K‘ang  Hsi),207; 
(of  Tao  Kuang),  256; 
(of  Kuang  Hsii),  312, 
319;  (of  Lung  Yu),  343. 

Electoral  System  (of  Re- 
public), 353. 

Eleuths  (wars  with),  206. 

Elgin  (Lord),  285,  288. 

Elixir  Vitae,  78,  159. 

Elliot  (Sir  Charles),  262L 

Encyclopaedias,  159. 

English  (relations),  165, 

I93- 

“ Ever-victorious  Army,” 
279. 

F 

Fa  Hsien  (Buddhist  pil- 
grim), 106. 

Favier  (Bishop),  327. 

Finances  (of  Republic), 

351- 


Five  King  (classics),  65. 

Five  Leaders,  55L 

Five  Little  Dynasties,  125L 

Five  Relations,  64. 

Five  Rulers,  24ff. 

Fleet  (fiasco  of  the),  293. 

“ Flight  of  a Tatar  Tribe,” 
227L 

Flint  (Mr.,  of  Ningpo),  232. 

“Foam  of  the  Sea”  (pi- 
rates), 246. 

Fontanier  (French  consul), 
298. 

Footbinding  (origin  of), 
102;  (attempt  to  sup- 
press), 210. 

Foreign  Relations  (under 
T'ang  Dynasty),  nof. 

Formosa,  9,  231,  259,  301, 

3I5-. 

Fournier  (French  soldier), 
311- 

Four  Shu  (classics),  66. 

France  (relations  with), 
285,287,310,315. 

Fu  Hsi  (culture  hero),  23, 
24  f. 

Fuhkien  (province),  11, 

195- 

Fu  Su  (Ch‘in  Prince),  81. 

Fu-ti  (general),  226. 

Fu  Wan  (Prince),  188. 

G 

Galdan  (Eleuth  Prince), 
206. 

Galdan  Chering  (Eleuth 
Prince),  216. 

Gerbillon  (Jesuit),  206. 

German  Relations,  315. 

Goodnow  (Dr.),  368. 

Gordon  (general),  280. 

Government  (of  China),  4, 

I2f. 


396 


INDEX 


Grand  Canal,  103. 

Grant  (Sir  Hope),  286. 

Great  Britain  (wars  with), 
265  f,  285  f. 

de  Gros  (Baron),  285. 

Gurkhas,  231. 

H 

Han  (dynasty),  83ff. 

Han  (sons  of),  8. 

Han  Yu  (scholar),  121. 

Hangchow  (city),  132,  145; 
(bore),  173. 

Hart  (Sir  Robert),  294C 

Heaven  (kings),  20. 

Heaven  and  Earth  (so- 
ciety), 215. 

Henry  of  Portugal,  3,  144. 

Hexagrams  (the  Sixty- 
four),  43. 

Hiang  Yu  (general),  81,  83. 

Hideyoshi  (Japanese  sol- 
dier), 128,  162. 

Hiouen  Tsang  (Buddhist 
pilgrim),  106,  153. 

Ho  Ch‘u-ping  (general),  94. 

Ho  Shen,  241. 

Ho  Tsin,  95. 

Hunn  (province),  12. 

Hongkong  (cession  of), 
266. 

Hsi  Wang  Mu  (Royal  Lady 
of  the  West),  48,  85. 

Hsia  (dynasty),  32b 

Hsiangyang  (city),  134. 

Hsien  Feng  (Emperor), 

283ff. 

Hsien  Ti  (Emperor),  95. 

Hsii  Shen  (scholar),  91. 

Hsuan  Tung  (Emperor), 

337,  343- 

Hsiian  Tsung  (Emperor), 
116,  151 ; (Ming  Em- 

peror), 160. 


Hu  Hai  (Prince),  81. 

Huan  (Duke),  55. 

Huan  Wang  (Emperor), 

55- 

Huang-ho  (river),  10,  33, 

237- 

Huang  Hsing,  361. 

Huang  Ti  (Emperor),  26. 

Hui  Ti  (Emperor),  158. 

Hui  Tsung  (Emperor),  131. 

Hunan  (province),  12. 

Hung  Hi  (Emperor),  159. 

Hung  Hsiu-ch'iian  (T‘aip- 
ing  leader),  274C 

Hung  Wu  (Emperor),  155! 

Huns  (the),  27,  85,  88. 

Hupeh  (province),  12. 

I 

I Ti  (inventor  of  wine),  33. 

I Tsung  (Emperor),  119. 

I Yin,  37. 

Immigration  (Chinese), 
297. 

“ Isles  of  the  Blest,”  79. 

Ito  (Prince),  310. 

J 

Japan  (Relations  with),  80, 
146,  161,  301,  313,  363^ 

Jehangir,  259. 

Jen  Tsung  (Sung  Em- 
peror), 130. 

Jen  Tsung  (Mongol  Em- 
peror), 149. 

Jen  Tsung  (Ming  Em- 
peror), 159. 

Jenghiz  Khan,  132b,  142, 
144,  179. 

Jesuits  (missions  of),  163!, 
201,  224. 

John  de  Monte  Corvino 
(Archbishop),  15 1. 


INDEX  397 


Jui  Tsung  (Emperor),  116. 

• Jung  (barbarian  tribe),  13. 

Jung  Lu  (Prince),  326. 

K 

Kaidu  (rebel),  149. 

Kaifengfu  (city),  166. 

K‘ang  Hsi  (Emperor),  184, 
198ft. 

Kang  Yu-wei  (scholar), 

3i8- 

Kansuh  (province),  n,  19. 

Kao  Tsu  (Emperor),  83. 

Kao  Tsu  (T'ang  Emperor), 
109. 

Kao  Tsung  (Emperor),  114. 

Kashgaria,  258,  300,  308. 

von  Ketteler  (murder  of), 
326. 

Khabaroff  ( Russian  ex- 
plorer), 205. 

Khanbaligh  (Cambaluc), 
148,  179. 

Khitan  (Tatars),  131. 

Ki  Tzu  (minister),  39. 

Kiangsi  (province),  12. 

Kiangsu  (province),  11. 

Kiaochao  (lease  of),  316; 
(loss  of),  363. 

Ki-lin  (fabled  beast),  19, 
140. 

Ki-ying,  267,  270,  283. 

Kim  Ok-kuin  (Korean 
statesman),  313. 

Kin  (Tatars),  131,  183. 

Korea,  10,  39,  162,  309,  313, 

3I5- 

Kowloon  (cession  of),  287. 

Kuan  Yu  (soldier),  96. 

Kuang  Hsu  (Emperor), 

3°5ff- 

Kuang  Wu  Ti  (Emperor), 

93- 

Kublai  Khan,  134,  143ft 


Ku-fu-hing  (grave  of  Con- 
fucius), 63. 

Kuldja,  308. 

K‘ung  (Dukes  of),  61. 
Kung  (Prince),  287,  289, 
291. 

K‘ung  Fu  (descendant  of 
Confucius),  78. 
Kuomingtang  (society), 
362. 

KuoTzu-i  (general),  117. 
Kwan  Tzu  (philosopher), 

55* 

Kwangsi  (province),  11. 
Kwangtung  (province),  11. 
Kweichau  (province),  12. 

L 

Lamas  (of  Tibet),  194,  207. 
Language  (Chinese),  14. 
Lao  Tzu  (founder  of  Tao- 
ism), 57ft 

Later  Chou  (dynasty),  125. 
Later  Han  (dynasty),  125. 
Later  Liang  (dynasty),  119, 

125. 

Later  T‘ang  (dynasty),  125. 
Later  Tsin  (dynasty),  125. 
Legations  (Siege  of  the), 
326. 

Lesser  Seal  (character),  77, 
82. 

Li  (son  of  Confucius),  62. 

Li  (general),  278. 

Li  Fang  (Indian  Buddhist), 

94- 

Li  Hung-chang  (states- 
man), 279,  306,  307,  31 1, 
313,  3 1 s,  330. 

Li  Ki  (Book  of  Rites),  65. 
Li  Kuang  (general),  86. 

Li  Kuang-li  (general),  86. 
Li  Lung-mien  (painter), 
141. 


398 


INDEX 


Li  Po  (poet),  120. 

Li  Shih-min  (Emperor), 
I09f. 

Li  Sin  (general),  75. 

Li  Ssu  (scholar),  77. 

Li  Tzu-ch‘eng  (rebel),  166, 
.185, 197. 

Li  Wang  (Emperor),  49. 

Li  Yuan-hung  (Vice-Presi- 
dent and  President),  341, 
37i- 

Liang  (dynasty),  102. 

Liao  (Tatars),  131. 
Liaotung  (peninsula),  164, 
184,  314,  315. 

Lieh  Tzu  (philosopher),  68. 
Lin  (Commissioner),  263. 
Lin  Sen  (statesman),  248. 
Lin  Sin,  37. 

Literature  (Chinese),  4, 
89 f.,  119L,  207C,  234. 

Liu  Hsiu  (Emperor),  93. 
Liu  K‘un-i  (Viceroy),  325, 
330- 

Liu  Pang  (Emperor),  83. 
Liu  Pei  (general),  96,  99. 
Liu  Yii  (Emperor),  101. 
Livadia  (Treaty  of),  308. 
Loch  (Sir  Henry),  287. 
Lolos  (barbarian  tribes),  13. 
Loyang  (city),  48,  95,  96. 
Lu  (kingdom  of),  53,  61,  65. 
Lu  Hou  (Empress),  84. 

Lu  Hsiu-fu  (general),  135. 
Lu  Ngao  (Taoist),  80. 

Lun  Yu  (classic),  66. 

Lung  Yu  (Empress),  353. 

M 

Ma  Yuan  (soldier),  94. 
Macao,  161,  192,  248,  249. 
Macartney  (Earl  of),  23 2f. 
Magaillans  (Pere),  217. 
Magianism,  mf. 


Maigrot  (Bishop),  202. 

Man  (barbarian  tribes),  13. 
Man  (kings),  20. 
Manchuria,  9,  329,  331. 
Manchus,  164,  179C  182ft. 
Mandarins,  47,  54. 

Mangu  (khan),  134,  145. 
Manichaeanism,  112. 
Manning  (Thomas),  23, 
249,  252. 

Marco  Polo,  132,  144,  179. 
Margary  (murder  of),  306. 
Martini  (Pere),  186. 
Maxims  (of  Lao  Tzu),  59. 
Mencius,  66,  67. 

Meng  Then  (general),  76. 
Miao-tsz,  13,  33,  229,  259. 
Micius  (philosopher),  68. 
Mienning  (Prince),  244. 
Milfoil  (divination  by),  27. 
Ming  (dynasty),  155®., 
179  f- 

Ming  Ti  (Emperor),  94. 
Missionaries  (massacres 
of).  325- 

Mo  Hsi  (favorite),  34. 
Mongolia,  9,  350. 
Montauban  (general),  287. 
Morrison  (Dr.  G.  E.),  348, 
349- 

Morrison  (Robert),  249, 
251- 

Mu  (Duke),  57. 

Mu  Tsung  (Ming  Em- 
peror), 163. 

Mu  Wang  (Emperor),  48b 
Muhamadan  Rebellion,  299. 
Muhamadanism  (Introduc- 
tion of),  hi,  238. 
Mukden  (Eulogy  of),  235. 

N 

Name  (of  China),  8,  75. 

Nan  Wang  (Emperor),  71. 


INDEX  399 


Nanking  (city),  132; 

(Treaty  of),  267I 
Napier  (Lord),  261  f. 

Nayan  (general),  149. 
Nerchinsk  (Treaty  of),  193, 
205. 

Nest-builders,  21. 
Nestorians,  hi. 

Ngan-hwui  (province),  12. 
Ngan-lo  (Princess),  116. 
Nien  (general),  216. 

Ning  Tsi  (philosopher),  56. 
Northern  Sung  (dynasty), 
101. 

Novel  (in  China),  152b 
Nurhachu  (Manchu  chief), 
164,  184. 

O 

Odes  (Book  of),  S3,  6s. 
Ogdai  (khan),  133. 

Olupun  (missionary),  in. 
Opium  question,  247,  269, 
333,  352. 

Origins  (Chinese),  17. 
Oyama  (Count),  314. 

P 

Pan  Chao  (literata),  92. 

Pan  Ku  (scholar),  92. 

P‘an  Ku  (myth  of),  19F 
Pandects  (of  Yung-lu),  156. 
Pao-ssu  (favorite),  52,  54. 
Paper  (use  of),  92. 

Parkes  (Sir  Harry),  284, 
287. 

Parliament  (Chinese),  333, 
354. 

Paul  Su,  164. 

Peking  (city  of),  132,  148, 
287,  326,  327. 

People  (Chinese),  5,  13. 
Perestrello  (Raphael),  161. 


Periods  (Three  August), 
20. 

Peter  the  Great,  206. 

Pettlin  (Evashto),  193. 

Philippines  (the),  224. 

Pi  Kan  (minister),  38. 

Pilgrims  (Buddhist),  iosf. 

P‘ing  Ti  (Emperor),  90. 

P‘ing  Wang  (Emperor),  53. 

Poetry  (Chinese),  U9f,  235. 

Polos  (the),  143C 

Poppy  (cultivation  of),  247. 

Population  (of  China),  13, 
15,  123. 

Port  Arthur,  314,  316. 

Portuguese  affairs,  i6of., 
187,  217. 

Poyarkoff  (explorer),  205. 

Prayer  (call  to),  355. 

Pu  Chii  (Prince),  323. 

P‘u  Sung-ling  (novelist), 
209. 

Pu  Yi  (Emperor  Hsuan 
Tung),  337. 

R 

Railways  (in  China),  307. 

Reforms,  117,  209,  218,  317, 
333-  . 

Republic  (Chinese),  34711. 

Revolution  (of  191 1 ) , 
337ff.,  340. 

Ricci  (Matteo),  163. 

Riots  (anti-Christian),  312. 

Riukiu  Islands,  301  f. 

de  Rubruk  (Franciscan), 
J44- 

Russia  (relations  with), 
193,  204,  217,  289,  315, 
350- 

Russo-Japanese  War,  332. 

S 

Sah  (admiral),  341. 


400 


INDEX 


Salopan  (rebel),  225. 

Sankolinsin  (general), 
279,  287. 

Schaal  (Adam),  191,  201. 

Secret  Societies,  214!:.,  222, 
238,  243. 

Serica,  Seres,  9. 

Seven  Sages  (of  the  Bam- 
boo Grove),  105. 

Seven  Scholars  (of  Chien 
An),  105. 

Shang  (dynasty),  36f. 

Shang  Ti  (Supreme  Be- 
ing), 25. 

Shang  K‘o-hi  (general), 
189. 

Shansi  (province),  11,  19. 

Shantung  (province),  11. 

Sheep  (in  China),  18. 

Shen  Nung  (Emperor),  26. 

Shensi  (province),  11,  19. 

Shi  King  (classic),  53,  65. 

Shih  Hung-chao  (states- 
man), 125. 

Shih  Tsung  (Later  Chou 
Emperor),  126. 

Shih  Tsung  (Ming  Em- 
peror), 161. 

Shimonoseki  (Treaty  of), 

3X5- 

Shu  King  (classic),  65. 

Shun  (Emperor),  28f. 

Shun  Chili  (Emperor),  167, 

i86ff. 

Shun  Ti  (Mongol  Em- 
peror), 149. 

Shuo  Wen,  91. 

Si  Kiang  (river),  10,  246. 

Si-ling  (Empress),  27. 

Si  Wang  (rebel),  189. 

Siang  (Duke),  56. 

Singanfu  (city),  hi;  (In- 
scription of),  III. 

Six  Power  Loan,  351. 

Smith  (Bishop),  273. 


Southern  Sung  (dynasty), 

129,  133- 

Ssu-ma  Ch‘ien  (historian), 
26,  31,  87,  90. 

Ssu-ma  Kuang  (historian 
and  statesman),  136, 
138C  • 

Staunton  (Sir  George), 
233. 

Su  She  (Taoist),  80. 

Su  Ts‘in  (statesman),  70. 

Su  Tsung  (Emperor),  117. 

Su  Wu  (ambassador),  86. 

Suan  Wang  (Emperor), 
50- 

Sugiyama  (Japanese  chan- 
cellor), 326. 

Sui  (dynasty),  103. 

Sui  Jen  (Chinese  Prome- 
theus), 21. 

Suleiman  (Sultan),  300. 

Summer  Palace  (destruc- 
tion of),  288. 

Sun  Yat-sen,  338#.,  342, 
346,  361. 

Sung  (dynasty),  129ft. 

Sung  (Chinese  pilgrim), 
106. 

Sung  Philosophers,  140. 

Sung  Yiin  (statesman), 
242. 

Suta  (general),  156. 

Szechwan  (province),  11. 

Sze-hai  (name  of  China), 

9- 

T 

T‘a  Chi  (favorite),  38,  41. 

Tai  Ch'ing  (dynasty),  168, 
i86f. 

Tai  Hsiao  (classic),  66. 

T‘ai  K‘ang  (Emperor),  34. 

T‘ai  P‘ing  (Princess),  116. 

T‘aiping  (rebellion),  273ft. 


INDEX 


401 


T‘ai  Tsu  (Sung  Emperor), 
129. 

T'ai  Tsung  (T'ang  Em- 
peror), nof. 

T‘ai  Tsung  (Sung  Em- 
peror), 130. 

T‘ang  (dynasty),  109ft. 

T‘ang  Shao-yi  (states- 
man), 342,  348. 

Taoism,  59f.,  78. 

Tao  Kuang  (Emperor), 

255ff-  . 

Tao  Te  King  (Taoist  clas- 
sic), 59. 

Tatar,  15. 

Tatnall  (captain),  286. 

Te  Tsung  (Emperor),  117. 

Tea  (poem  on),  235. 

Three  Kingdoms  (period), 
99f. ; (novel),  178. 

Tibet,  9,  194.  230,  331. 

Tien-ha  (name  of  China), 
9. 

Tientsin  (Treaty  of),  286; 
(massacre  of),  298. 

Tih  (barbarian  tribe),  13. 

Timur  (Mongol  emperor), 

149. 

Ting  (admiral),  315. 

Ting  Wang  (Emperor),  57. 

Titsingh  (Isaac),  234. 

Tongking,  104,  31 1. 

Triads  (secret  society), 
215- 

Trigrams  (of  Fu  Hsi),  25, 
31- 

Tsai  Tse  (Prince),  332. 

Ts‘ao-ts‘ao  (general),  96, 
99- 

Tseng  (Marquis),  309. 

Tseng  Kuo-fan  (general), 
276. 

Tsi-an  (Empress),  292. 

Tsi  Thsi  (Empress),  292L, 
305.  320,  323ff. 


Tsingtao  (fall  of),  363. 
Tso  Tsung-t‘ang  (general), 
301. 

Ts‘ung  Cheng  (Emperor), 
165,  180. 

Tu  Fu  (poet),  121. 

Tuan  (Prince),  323,  326. 
Tuan  Fang  (viceroy),  325. 
Tuli  (son  of  Jenghiz 
Khan),  134,  144.  ‘ 

T‘ung  Chih  (Emperor), 
29  iff. 

Tung  Cho  (general),  95. 
Tung-fang  So  (censor), 
84. 

Turguts,  228. 

Turkestan,  9. 

Tyler  (President),  268. 

V 

Valignani  (Jesuit),  164. 
Verbiest  (Jesuit),  201. 
Voltaire  (poem  of,  to 
Ch'ien  Lung),  235-6. 

( 

W 

Wade  (Sir  Thomas),  302, 
306. 

von  Waldersee  (Field  Mar- 
shal), 328. 

Wall  (the  Great),  76. 

Wan  Li  (Emperor),  163L 
Wang  An-shih  (reformer), 

'35ff- 

Wang  Chih  (Taoist),  79. 
Wang  Shih-ch‘ung  (min- 
ister), 104. 

Wang  Tsien  (general),  75. 
Ward  (Frederick),  279. 
Weddell  (captain),  165. 
Weihaiwei,  314,  316,  322. 
Wei  Hou  (Empress),  115. 
Wen  (Duke),  56. 


402 


INDEX 


Wen  Ti  (Emperor),  84, 
103- 

Wen  Tien-hsiang  (minis- 
ter).  135,  145. 

Wen  Wang  (Emperor),  38, 

43- 

Western  Han  (dynasty), 
93- 

Western  Tsin  (dynasty), 
100. 

White  Lotus  (society), 

2I5- 

Writing  (invention  of),  25. 
Wu  Hou  (Empress),  114. 
Wu  San-kwei  (general), 
167,  185ft.,  199L,  213. 
Wu  Tao-yiian  (painter), 
122. 

Wu  Ti  (Han  Emperor), 
84. 

Wu  Ti  (Western  Tsin  Em- 
peror), 100. 

Wu  Ting  (Emperor),  37. 
Wu  Ting-fang  (diploma- 
tist), 308. 

Wu  Tsung  (T‘ang  Em- 
peror), 118. 

Wu  Tsung  (Mongol  Em- 
peror), 149;  (Ming  Em- 
peror), 160. 

Wu  Wang  (Emperor),  39, 

44- 

Wu  Yih  (Emperor),  37. 

X 

Xavier  (S.  Francis),  163. 
Y 

Yakoub  (Khan),  300. 


Yalu  (Battle  of  the),  314. 

Yang  Chen  (philosopher), 
93- 

Yang  Chien  (Emperor), 
103. 

Yangchow  (massacre  of), 
188. 

Yang  Chu  (philosopher), 

68. 

Yang  Hsiung  (literatus), 
91- 

Yang  Kuei-fei  (favorite), 
1 16,  124. 

Yangtse  Kiang  (river),  10. 

Yang  Kuang  (Emperor), 
103. 

Yang  Yen  (reformer),  117. 

Yao  (Emperor),  28I 

Yeh  Ming-shen  (commis- 
sioner), 270,  285. 

Yehonala  (Empress),  312. 

Yermak  (Cossack),  205. 

Yi  (barbarian  tribe),  13. 

Yi  King  (classic),  65. 

Ying  Tsung  (Emperor), 
135;  (Ming  Emperor), 
160. 

Yii  (Emperor),  30,  32f. 

Yu-kuang  (general),  156. 

Yu  Wang  (Emperor),  52. 

Yuan  (dynasty),  143ft. 

Yuan  Ko-ting  (son  of 
Yuan  Shih-kai),  366. 

Yuan  Shih-kai,  320,  332, 

337f-  34tf-,  347,  35<5f„ 
360  ff. 

Yung  Cheng  (Emperor), 
214ft. 

Yung  Le  (Emperor),  158. 

Yung  Li,  189. 

Yunnan  ('province),  11. 


Date  Due 


■ 


•> 


